Apples in Japan are
generally cultivated under management systems that use chemical fertilizers and
synthetic chemical pesticides. However, the continuous use of these fertilizers
and pesticides damages the soil environment and reduces the number of soil
microorganisms. In this study, we compared the chemical and biological
properties of 12 soils from apple orchards in Aomori and Nagano Prefectures
under four types of management systems, namely, natural conditions, with no
cultivation, fertilizers, or pesticides; organic farming methods, using
organic materials and pesticides approved by the Japanese Agricultural
Standard organic certification system; hybrid farming methods, using a mix of
organic and chemical fertilizers; and conventional farming, using chemical
fertilizers and pesticides. Soil total carbon (TC), total nitrogen (TN), total
phosphorus (TP), nitrate-nitrogen (NO? 3), and available phosphoric acid
(SP) contents were generally found to be the highest where organic farming
methods were used. Similarly, bacterial biomass, nitrification (N) circulation
activity, ammonia (NH+
4) oxidation activity, nitrite (NO? 2) oxidation activity, and phosphoric
(P) circulation activity were the highest under organic farming, especially in
comparison with conventional farming. This study indicated that the differences
in apple sugar content, acidity, and sugar/acidity ratio between different orchard
management systems were due to different soil conditions, and soil conditions
under organic farming management system in apple cultivation increased bacterial
biomass while enhancing N and P circulation activity and high TC. On the other
hand, the soil of conventional farming has the lowest total number of bacterial
biomass and lowest material cycle such as Nand P circulation activity. Analysis of the chemical and biological
properties of these orchard soils indicated that soil conditions under organic
farming management are the most suitable for increasing microbial numbers and
enhancing N and P circulation activity.
References
[1]
McNeill, J., Barrie, F.R., Buck, W.R., Demoulin, V., Greuter, W., Hawksworth, D.L., Herendeen, P.S., Knapp, S., Marhold, K., Prado, J., Van Reine, P., Smith, G.F., Wiersema, J.H. and Turland, N.J. (2012) International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi, and Plants (Melbourne Code). The 8th International Botanical Congress Melbourne, Australia, July 2011, 1-40.
[2]
Forsline, P.L., Aldwinckle, H.S., Dickson, E.E., Luby, J.J. and Hokanson, S.C. (2003) Collection, Maintenance, Characterization, and Utilization of Wild Apples of Central Asia. In: Janick, J., Ed., Horticultural Reviews: Wild Apple and Fruit Trees of Central Asia, Vol. 29, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, 1-62.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470650868.ch1
[3]
Cornille, A., Gladieux, P., Smulders, M.J., Roldán-Ruiz, I., Laurens, F., Le Cam, B., Nersesyan, A., Clavel, J., Olonova, M., Feugey, L., Gabrielyan, I., Zhang, X.G. and Giraud, T. (2012) New Insight into the History of Domesticated Apple: Secondary Contribution of the European Wild Apple to the Genome of Cultivated Varieties. PLOS Genetics, 8, e1002703. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1002703
[4]
Koike, H. (2006) NHK Hobby Horticulture 12 Months Cultivation Apples. NHK Publishing, Tokyo, 4-127.
[5]
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (2019).
https://www.maff.go.jp/j/tokei/kouhyou/sakumotu/sakkyou_kazyu/
Kubo, M., Adhikari, D., Araki, S.K., Kubota, K., Shinozaki, A., Matsuda, F., Mitsukoshi, K., Mukai, M. and Watarai, H. (2017) Science of Soil Making. Seibundo Shinkosha Co., Ltd., Japan, 2-185.
[8]
Reganold, J.P., Glover, J.D., Andrews, P.K. and Hinman, H.R. (2001) Sustainability of Three Apple Production Systems. Nature, 410, 926-930.
https://doi.org/10.1038/35073574
[9]
De Ponti, T., Rijk, B. and Van Ittersum, M.K. (2012) The Crop Yield Gap between Organic and Conventional Agriculture. Agricultural Systems, 108, 1-9.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2011.12.004
[10]
Dris, R. (2002) Influence of Orchard Management on Growth and Production of Fruits. In: Dris, T., Jain, S.M. and Khan, I.A., Eds., Environment and Crop Production, Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, NH, 1-3.
[11]
Aggelopoulou, K.D., Wulfsohn, D., Fountas, S., Gemtos, T.A., Nanos, G.D. and Blackmore, S. (2010) Spatial Variation in Yield and Quality in a Small Apple Orchard. Precision Agriculture, 11, 538-556.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11119-009-9146-9
[12]
Fujisawa, M. and Kobayashi, K. (2013) Shifting from Apple to Peach Farming in Kazuno, Northern Japan: Perceptions of and Responses to Climatic and Non-Climatic Impacts. Regional Environmental Change, 13, 1211-1222.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-013-0434-6
[13]
Adhikari, D., Kai, T., Mukai, M., Araki, S.K. and Kubo, M. (2014) Proposal for a Soil Fertility Index (SOFIX) for Organic Agriculture and Construction of a SOFIX Database for Agricultural Fields. Current Topics in Biotechnology, 8, 81-91.
[14]
Kai, T., Mukai, M., Araki, K.S., Adhikari, D. and Kubo, M. (2015) Physical and Biochemical Properties of Apple Orchard Soils of Different Productivities. Open Journal of Soil Science, 5, 149-156. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojss.2015.57015
[15]
Kai, T., Mukai, M., Araki, K. S., Adhikari, D. and Kubo, M. (2016) Analysis of Chemical and biological Soil Properties in Organically and Conventionally Fertilized Apple Orchards. Journal of Agricultural Chemistry and Environment, 5, 92-99.
https://doi.org/10.4236/jacen.2016.52010
[16]
Nagano Agricultural Administration Department (2018) The Guide of Environment-Friendly Agricultural Technology.
https://www.pref.nagano.lg.jp/nogi/sangyo/nogyo/hiryo/documents/naganoken.pdf
[17]
Nicholas, D.J.D. and Nason, A. (1957) Determination of Nitrate and Nitrite. Methods in Enzymology, 3, 981-984. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0076-6879(57)03489-8
[18]
Murphy, J. and Riley, J. P. (1962) A Modified Single Solution Method for the Determination of Phosphate in Natural Waters. Analytica Chimica Acta, 27, 31-36.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-2670(00)88444-5
[19]
Adhikari, D., Kai, T., Mukai, M., Araki, S.K. and Kubo, M. (2014) Proposal for a New Soil Fertility Index (SOFIX) for Organic Agriculture and Construction of a SOFIX Database for Agricultural Fields. Current Topics in Biotechnology, 8, 81-91.
[20]
Aoshima, H., Kimura, A., Shibutani, A., Okada, C., Matsumiya, Y. and Kubo, M. (2006) Evaluation of Soil Bacterial Biomass Using Environmental DNA Extracted by Slow-Stirring Method. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 71, 875-880.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-005-0245-x
[21]
Matsuno, T., Horii, S., Sato, T., Matsumiya, Y. and Kubo, M. (2013) Analysis of Nitrification in Agricultural Soil and Improvement of Nitrogen Circulation with Autotrophic Ammonia-Oxidizing Bacteria. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 169, 795-809. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-012-0029-6
[22]
Horii, S., Matsuno, T., Tagomori, J., Mukai, M., Adhikari, D. and Kubo, M. (2013) Isolation and Identification of Phytate Degrading Bacteria and Their Contribution to Phytate Mineralization in Soil. Journal of General and Applied Microbiology, 59, 353-360. https://doi.org/10.2323/jgam.59.353
[23]
Ishiyama, M. (1990) Trends in Apple Flavor and Objectives in Breeding. Tohoku Agric. Res. Extra Issue, 3, 61-70.
http://www.naro.affrc.go.jp/org/tarc/to-noken/DB/DATA/e03/e03-061.
pdf#search='%E3%83%AA%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B4%E3%
81%AE%E5%97%9C%E5%A5%BD%E3%81%A8%E5%93%
81%E7%A8%AE%E8%82%B2%E6%88%90%E3%81%AE%E
6%96%B9%E5%90%91'
