全部 标题 作者
关键词 摘要

OALib Journal期刊
ISSN: 2333-9721
费用:99美元

查看量下载量

相关文章

更多...

Formation of Ionospheric Precursors of Earthquakes—Probable Mechanism and Its Substantiation

DOI: 10.4236/ojer.2020.92009, PP. 142-169

Keywords: Atmospheric Gravity Waves, Seismic-Ionospheric Coupling, Thermosphere

Full-Text   Cite this paper   Add to My Lib

Abstract:

The purpose of this article is to attract the attention of the scientific community to atmospheric gravity waves (GWs) as the most likely mechanism for the transfer of energy from the surface layers of the atmosphere to space heights and describe the channel of seismic-ionospheric relations formed in this way. The article begins with a description and critical comparison of several basic mechanisms of action on the ionosphere from below: the propagation of electromagnetic radiation; the closure of the atmospheric currents through the ionosphere; the penetration of waves throughout the neutral atmosphere. A further part of the article is devoted to the analysis of theoretical and experimental information relating to the actual GWs. Simple analytical expressions are written that allow one to calculate the parameters of GWs in specific experimental situations. Specificity of GW dispersion properties and features of their propagation are analyzed on this mathematical basis, processes of amplitude amplification and dissipation of GWs with height are investigated, the mechanism of generation of ionosphere-magnetosphere current systems is described and their quantitative characteristics are determined. The experimental part presents an analysis of GWs global distribution in the thermosphere derived from the data of the instrument NACS (Neutral Atmosphere Composition Spectrometer) onboard the satellite DE-2 (NASA, 1981-1983). The statistical association of registered ionospheric disturbances with earthquakes is demonstrated. The results of DE-2 data processing are backed up by comparison with data from the DEMETER satellite (CNES, 2005-2010) whose purpose was to study the ionospheric effects of earthquakes. Specific features of GWs that characterize these waves as a factor of influence on the ionosphere from below are indicated.

References

[1]  Molchanov, A. and Hayakawa, M. (2008) Seismo Electromagnetics and Related Phenomena: History and Latest Results. TERRAPUB, Tokyo.
[2]  Pulinets, S.A., Ouzounov, D.P., Karelin, A.V. and Davidenko, D.V. (2015) Physical Bases of the Generation of Short-Term Earthquake Precursors: a Complex Model of Ionization-Induced Geophysical Processes in the Lithosphere-Atmosphere-Ionos-phere-Magnetosphere System. Geomagnetism and Aeronomy, 55, 521-538.
https://doi.org/10.1134/S0016793215040131
[3]  Hines, C.O. (1960) Internal Atmospheric Gravity Waves at Ionospheric Heights. Canadian Journal of Physics, 38, 1441-1481. https://doi.org/10.1139/p60-150
[4]  Hines, C.O. (1974) The Upper Atmosphere in Motion. American Geophysical Union, Washington DC. https://doi.org/10.1029/GM018
[5]  Yeh, K.C. and Liu, C.H. (1974) Acoustic-Gravity Waves in Upper Atmosphere. Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics, 12, 193-216.
https://doi.org/10.1029/RG012i002p00193
[6]  Francis, S.H. (1975) Global Propagation of Atmospheric Gravity Waves: A Review. Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics, 37, 1011-1054.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9169(75)90012-4
[7]  Kato, S. (1980) Dynamics of the Upper Atmosphere. Developments of the Earth and Planetary Sciences. Center for Academic Publications Japan, Tokyo.
[8]  Hocke, K. and Schlegel, K. (1996) A Review of Atmospheric Gravity Waves and Travelling Ionospheric Disturbances: 1982-1995. Annals of Geophysics, 14, 917-940.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00585-996-0917-6
[9]  Kato, S. (2007) Thermosphere. In: Kamide, Y. and Chian, A.C.-L., Eds., Handbook of the Solar-Terrestrial Environment, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, 222-249.
[10]  Fritts, D.C. and Lund, T.X. (2011) Gravity Wave Influences in the Thermosphere and Ionosphere: Observations and Recent Modeling. Aeronomy of the Earth’s Atmosphere and Ionosphere. IAGA Special Sopron Book Series, Vol. 2, 109-130.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0326-1_8
[11]  Rishbeth, H. (2006) Ionoquakes: Earthquake Precursors in the Ionosphere. Eos, 87, 316-316. https://doi.org/10.1029/2006EO320008
[12]  Gokhberg, M., Pilipenko, V. and Pokhotelov, O. (1983) Observations from a Satellite of Electromagnetic Radiation over the Epicenter Region of an Impending Earthquake. Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 268, 56-58. (In Russian)
[13]  Larkina, V., Nalivaiko, A., Gershenzon, N., Liperovsky, V., Gokhberg, M. and Shalimov, S. (1983) Observations on the Satellite “Intercosmos-19” of VLF Emissions Related to Seismic Activity. Geomagnetism and Aeronomy, 23, 842-846. (In Russian)
[14]  Nickolaenko, A.P. and Hayakawa, M. (2014) Schumann Resonances for Tyros: Essentials of Global Electromagnetic Resonance in the Earth-Ionosphere Cavity. Springer, Tokyo. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-54358-9
[15]  Dudkin, F., Korepanov, V., Dudkin, D., Pilipenko, V., Pronenko, V. and Klimov, S. (2015) Electric Field of the Power Terrestrial Sources Observed by Microsatellite Chibis-M in the Earth’s Ionosphere in Frequency Range 1-60 Hz. Geophysical Research Letters, 42, 5686-5693. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL064595
[16]  Row, R.V. and Mentzoni, M.H. (1972) On D-Region Electron Heating by a Low-Frequency Terrestrial Line Current with Ground Return. Radio Science, 7, 1061-1066. https://doi.org/10.1029/RS007i011p01061
[17]  Bullough, K., Kaiser, R. and Strangeways, H.J. (1985) Unintentional Man-Made Modification Effects in the Magnetosphere. Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics, 47, 1211-1223. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9169(85)90089-3
[18]  Parrot, M. (1990) World Map of ELF/VLF Emissions as Observed by Low-Orbiting Satellite. Annales Geophysicae, 8, 135-145.
[19]  Parrot, M. and Zaslavski, Y. (1996) Physical Mechanisms of Manmade Influences on the Magnetosphere. Surveys in Geophysics, 17, 67-100.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01904475
[20]  Rothkaehl, H. and Parrot, M. (2005) Electromagnetic Emissions Detected in the Topside Ionosphere Related to the Human Activity. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 67, 821-828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2005.02.003
[21]  Nickolaenko, A.P. and Hayakawa, M. (1995) Heating of the Lower Ionosphere Electrons by Electromagnetic Radiation of Lightning Discharges. Geophysical Research Letters, 22, 3015-3018. https://doi.org/10.1029/95GL01982
[22]  Frenkel, Ya. (2007) The Theory of the Atmospheric Electricity Phenomenon. 2nd Edition, KomKniga, M., 160 p. (In Russian)
[23]  Mareev, E.A. (2010) Achievements and Prospects of Research on the Global Electrical Circuit. Advances in Physical Sciences, 180, 527-534. (In Russian)
[24]  Holzworth, R.H. (1995) Quasistatic Electromagnetic Phenomena in the Atmosphere and Ionosphere. In: Volland, H., Ed., CRC Handbook on Atmospherics, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 235-266.
[25]  Bliokh, P. (1999) Variations of Electric Fields and Currents in the Lower Ionosphere Produced by Conductivity Growth of the Air above the Future Earthquake Center. In: Hayakawa, M., Ed., Atmospheric and Ionospheric Electromagnetic Phenomena Associated with Earthquakes, TERRAPUB, Tokyo, 829-838.
[26]  Kelley, M.C. (1989) The Earth’s Ionosphere. Plasma Physics and Electrodynamics. International Geophysics Series, 43, Academic Press Inc., Cambridge.
[27]  Denisenko, V. and Pomozov, E. (2010) Penetration of an Electric Field from the Surface Layer of the Atmosphere into the Ionosphere. Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 16, 70-75. (In Russian)
[28]  Korepanov, V., Hayakawa, M., Yampolski, Yu. and Lizunov, G. (2009) AGW as Seismo-Ionospheric Coupling Response. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 34, 485-495.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2008.07.014
[29]  Hayakawa, M., Asano, T., Rozhnoi, A. and Solovieva, M. (2018) Very-Low and Low-Frequency Sounding of Ionospheric Perturbations and Possible Association with Earthquakes. In: Ouzounov, D., et al., Eds., Pre-Earthquake Process: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Earthquake Prediction Studies, AGU, Washington DC, 277-304. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119156949.ch16
[30]  Tronin, A.A. (1999) Satellite Thermal Survey Application for Earthquake Prediction. In: Hayakawa, M., Ed., Atmospheric and Ionospheric Electromagnetic Phenomena Associated with Earthquakes, TERRAPUB, Tokyo, 717-746.
[31]  Tronin, A.A. (2002) Atmosphere-Lithosphere Coupling. Thermal Anomalies on the Earth Surface in Seismic Processes. In: Hayakawa, M. and Molchanov, O.A., Eds., Seismo Electromagnetics: Lithosphere-Atmosphere-Ionosphere Coupling, TERRAPUB, Tokyo, 173-176.
[32]  Gokhberg, M.B., Nekrasov, A.K. and Shalimov S.L. (1994) A New Approach to the Problem of Lithosphere-Ionosphere Coupling Before the Earthquake. In: Hayakawa, M. and Fujinawa, Y., Eds., Electromagnetic Phenomena Related to Earthquake Prediction, TERRAPUB, Tokyo, 619-626.
[33]  Mareev, E.A., Iudin, D.I. and Molchanov, O.A. (2002) Mosaic Source of Internal Gravity Waves Associated with Seismic Activity. In: Hayakawa, M. and Molchanov, O.A., Eds., Seismo Electromagnetics: Lithosphere-Atmosphere-Ionosphere Coupling, TERRAPUB, Tokyo, 335-342.
[34]  Chernogor, L.F. (2019) Possible Generation of Quasi-Periodic Magnetic Precursors of Earthquakes. Geomagnetism and Aeronomy, 59, 374-382.
https://doi.org/10.1134/S001679321903006X
[35]  Nakamura, T., Korepanov, V., Kasahara, Y., Hobara, Y. and Hayakawa, M. (2013) An Evidence on the Lithosphere-Ionosphere Coupling in Terms of Atmospheric Gravity Waves on the Basis of a Combined Analysis of Surface Pressure, Ionospheric Perturbations and Ground-Based ULF Variations. Journal of Atmospheric Electricity, 33, 53-68. https://doi.org/10.1541/jae.33.53
[36]  Yang, S.-S., Asano, T. and Hayakawa, M. (2019) Abnormal Gravity Wave Activity in the Stratosphere Prior to the 2016 Kumamoto Earthquakes. Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics, 124, 1410-1425. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JA026002
[37]  Walterscheid, R.L. and Hickey, M.P. (2011) Group Velocity and Energy Flux in the Thermosphere: Limits on the Validity of Group Velocity in a Viscous Atmosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research, 116, D12101.
https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014987
[38]  Lizunov, G. and Leontiev, A. (2014) Ranges of AGW Propagation in the Earth’s Atmosphere. Geomagnetism and Aeronomy, 54, 841-848.
https://doi.org/10.1134/S0016793214050089
[39]  Bidlingmayer, Е. and Pogoreltsev, А. (1992) Numerical Simulation of the Transformation of Acoustic-Gravitational Waves into Temperature and Viscous Waves in the Thermosphere. Izvestiya: Atmospheric and Ocean Physics, 28, 64-73. (In Russian)
[40]  Vadas, S.L. and Fritts, D.C. (2005) Thermospheric Responses to Gravity Waves: Influences of Increasing Viscosity and Thermal Diffusivity. Journal of Geophysical Research, 110, D15103. https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JD005574
[41]  Li, M. and Parrot, M. (2013) Statistical Analysis of an Ionospheric Parameter as a Base for Earthquake Prediction. Journal of Geophysical Research, 118, 3731-3739.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jgra.50313
[42]  Marov, M. and Kolesnichenko, A. (1987) Introduction to Planetary Aeronomy. Nauka, M., 456 p. (In Russian)
[43]  Pogoreltsev, A.I. (1996) Production of Electromagnetic Field Disturbances Due to the Interaction between Acoustic Gravity Waves and the Ionospheric Plasma. Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics, 58, 1125-1141.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9169(95)00088-7
[44]  Yampolsky, Yu., Zalizovsky, A., Litvinenko, L., Lizunov, G., Groves, K. and Moldvin, M. (2004) Variations of the Magnetic Field in the Antarctic and the Conjugated Region (New England) Stimulated by Cyclonic Activity. Radio-Physics and Radio-Astronomy, 9, 130-151. (In Russian)
[45]  Hooke, W.H. (1968) Ionospheric Irregularities Produced by Internal Atmospheric Gravity Waves. Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics, 30, 795-829.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9169(68)80033-9
[46]  Hooke, W.H. (1970) The Ionospheric Response to Internal Gravity Waves, 1, The F2 Region Response. Journal of Geophysical Research, 75, 5535-5544.
https://doi.org/10.1029/JA075i028p05535
[47]  Hooke, W.H. (1970) The Ionospheric Response to Internal Gravity Waves, 2, Lower F Region Response. Journal of Geophysical Research, 75, 7229-7238.
https://doi.org/10.1029/JA075i034p07229
[48]  Hooke, W.H. (1970) The Ionospheric Response to Internal Gravity Waves, 3, Changes in the Densities of the Different Ion Species. Journal of Geophysical Research, 75, 7239-7243. https://doi.org/10.1029/JA075i034p07239
[49]  Rolland, L.M., Lognonne, P., Astafyeva, E., Kherani, E.A., Kobayashi, N., Mann, M. and Munekane, H. (2011) The Resonant Response of the Ionosphere Imaged after the 2011 Off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake. Earth Planets Space, 63, 853-857.
https://doi.org/10.5047/eps.2011.06.020
[50]  Astafyeva, E.I. and Afraimovich, E.L. (2006) Long Distance Travelling Ionospheric Disturbances Caused by the Great Sumatra’ Andaman Earthquake on 26 December 2004. Earth Planets Space, 58, 1025-1031. https://doi.org/10.1186/BF03352607
[51]  Johnson, F.S., Hanson, W.B., Hodges, R.R., Coley, W.R., Carignan, G.R. and Spencer, N.W. (1995) Gravity Waves near 300 Km over the Polar Caps. Journal of Geophysical Research, 100, 23,993-24,002. https://doi.org/10.1029/95JA02858
[52]  Innis, J.L. and Conde, M. (2002) Characterization of Acoustic-Gravity Waves in the Upper Thermosphere Using Dynamics Explorer 2 Wind and Temperature Spectrometer (WATS) and Neutral Atmosphere Composition Spectrometer (NACS) Data. Journal of Geophysical Research, 107, 1418-1439.
https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JA009370
[53]  Dudis, J.J. and Reber, C.A. (1976) Composition Effects in Thermospheric Gravity Waves. Geophysical Research Letters, 3, 727-730.
https://doi.org/10.1029/GL003i012p00727
[54]  Makhlouf, U., Dewan, E., Isler, J.R. and Tuan, T.F. (1990) On the Importance of the Purely Gravitationally Induced Density, Pressure and Temperature Variations in Gravity Waves: Their Application to Airglow Observations. Journal of Geophysical Research, 95, 4103-4111. https://doi.org/10.1029/JA095iA04p04103
[55]  Gross, S.H., Reber, C.A. and Huang, F.T. (1984) Large-Scale Waves in the Thermosphere Observed by the AE-C Satellite. The Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 22, 340-351. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.1984.350635
[56]  Ferencz, Cs., Lizunov, G. and POPDAT Team (2014) Ionosphere Waves Service (IWS): A Problem-Oriented Tool in Ionosphere and Space Weather Research Produced by POPDAT Project. Journal of Space Weather and Space Climate, 4, A17.
https://doi.org/10.1051/swsc/2014013
[57]  Lizunov, G. and Skorokhod, T. (2018) On the Selection of Wave Disturbances against the Background of Trends in Satellite Thermosphere Observations. Space Science and Technology, 24, 57-68. (In Russian)
https://doi.org/10.15407/knit2018.06.057
[58]  Potter, W.E., Kayser, D.C. and Mauersberger, K. (1976) Direct Measurements of Neutral Wave Characteristics in the Thermosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research, 81, 5002-5012. https://doi.org/10.1029/JA081i028p05002
[59]  Hedin, A.E. and Mayr, H.G. (1987) Characteristics of Wavelike Fluctuations in Dynamics Explorer Neutral Composition Data. Journal of Geophysical Research, 92, 11,159-11,172. https://doi.org/10.1029/JA092iA10p11159
[60]  Skorokhod, T. and Lizunov, G. (2012) Localized Packets of Acoustic Gravity Waves in the Ionosphere. Geomagnetism and Aeronomy, 52, 88-93.
https://doi.org/10.1134/S0016793212010148
[61]  Fedorenko, A. (2009) Reproduction of the Characteristics of Atmospheric Gravity Waves in the Polar Regions on the Basis of Satellite Mass Spectrometric Measurements. Radio-Physics and Radio-Astronomy, 14, 254-265. (In Ukrainian)

Full-Text

Contact Us

service@oalib.com

QQ:3279437679

WhatsApp +8615387084133