Potential Impact of Space Environments on Developmental and Maturational Programs Which Evolved to Meet the Boundary Conditions of Earth: Will Maturing Humans Be Able to Establish a Functional Biologic System Set Point under Non-Earth Conditions?
Mammalian development and maturation, particularly processes for humans have evolved in the context of the boundary conditions of Earth (i.e. 1 g gravity, geomagnetic field, background radiation) to yield functional individuals, although the process is not perfect and “errors” do occur. With the advent of spaceflight to low Earth orbit (the International Space Station), humans are now exposed to microgravity and increased exposure to radiation. However, thus far, only adult humans have served as astronauts, but this will likely change with plans to explore deep space and colonize planets. Thus, conception, fetal development, post-birth maturation, puberty and skeletal maturity will occur in the context of boundary conditions that did not shape human evolution and influence physiological and biomechanical systems designed to function within the Earth’s boundary conditions. Thus, processes utilizing the 1 g environment (i.e. walking upright) and the geomagnetic field (i.e. the electrical/biomagnetic basis of neural interactions) will have to adapt to new boundary conditions, providing opportunity for additional errors or alterations in processing during development which could impact functional outcomes at multiple levels. This review/perspective will discuss some of these issues and attempt to provide direction for addressing the potential issues to be encountered.
References
[1]
Baillet, S. (2017) Magnetoencephalography for Brain Electrophysiology and Imaging. Nature Neuroscience, 20, 327-339. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.4504
[2]
Ueno, S. (2012) Studies on Magnetism and Bioelectromagnetics for 45 Years: From Magnetic Analog to Human Brain Stimulation and Imaging. Bioelectromagnetics, 33, 3-22. https://doi.org/10.1002/bem.20714
[3]
Preissi, H., Lowery, C.L. and Eswaran, H. (2004) Fetal Magnetoencephalography: Current Progress and Trends. Experimental Neurology, 190, S28-S36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2004.06.016
[4]
Okada, Y., Hamalainen, M., Pratt, K., Mascarenas, A., et al. (2016) BabyMEG: A Whole-Head Pediatric Magnetoencephalography System for Human Brain Development Research. Review Science Instruments, 87, Article ID: 094301. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4962020
[5]
Balassa, T., Varro, P., Elek, S., Drozdovszky, O., et al. (2013) Changes in Synaptic Efficacy in Rat Brain Slices following Extremely Low-Frequency Magnetic Field Exposure at Embryonic and Early Postnatal Age. International Journal Developmental Neuroscience, 31, 724-730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2013.08.004
[6]
Wigle, D.T., Arbuckle, T.E., Walker, M., Wade, M.G., et al. (2007) Environment Hazards: Evidence for Effects on Child Health. Journal Toxicology Environmental Health B: Critical Reviews, 10, 3-39.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10937400601034563
[7]
Davenport, R.W. and McCaig, C.D. (1993) Hippocampal Growth Cone Responses to Focally Applied Electric Fields. Journal of Neurobiology, 24, 89-100. https://doi.org/10.1002/neu.480240108
[8]
Juutilainen, J. (2005) Developmental Effects of Electromagnetic Fields. Bioelectromagnetics, 7, S107-S115.
https://doi.org/10.1002/bem.20125
[9]
Beer, A.E., Quebbeman, J.F., Ayeers, J.W. and Haines, R.F. (1981) Major Histocompatibility Complex Antigens, Maternal and Paternal Immune Responses, and Chronic Habitual Abortions in Humans. American Journal Obstetrics Gynecology, 141, 987-999. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9378(16)32690-4
[10]
Beer, A.E. (1983) Immunopathologic Factors Contributing to Recurrent Spontaneous Abortions in Humans. American Journal Reproductive Immunology, 4, 182-184. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0897.1983.tb00275.x
[11]
Klein, J. (1975) Biology of the Mouse Histocompatibility-2 Complex. Principles of Immunogenetics Applied to a Single System. Springer-Verlag, New York.
[12]
Ruden, D.M., Bolick, A., Awonuga, A., Abdulhasan, M., et al. (2018) Effects of Gravity, Microgravity, and Microgravity Simulation on Early Mammalian Development. Stem Cells Development, 27, 1230-1236.
https://doi.org/10.1089/scd.2018.0024
Arnfield, E, Guzzetta, A. and Boyd, R. (2013) Relationship between Brain Structure on Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Motor Outcomes in Children with Cerebral Palsy: A Systematic Review. Research Developmental Disabilities, 34, 2234-2250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2013.03.031
[15]
Papadelis, C., Ahtam, B., Nazarova, M., Nimec, D., et al. (2014) Cortical Somatosensory Reorganization in Children with Spastic Cerebral Palsy: A Multimodal Neuroimaging Study. Frontiers Human Neuroscience, 8, 725. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00725
[16]
Reid, S.M., Ditchfield, M.R., Bracken, J. and Reddihough, D.S. (2015) Relationship Between Characteristics on Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Motor Outcomes in Children with Cerebral Palsy and White Matter Injury. Research Developmental Disabilities, 45-46, 178-187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2015.07.030
[17]
Pagnozzi, A.M., Dowson, N., Doecke, J., Fiori, S., et al. (2016) Automate, Quantitative Measures of Grey and White Matter Lesion burden Correlates with Motor and Cognitive Function in Children with Unilateral Cerebral Palsy. Neuroimage: Clinical, 11, 751-759. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2016.05.018
[18]
Ronca, A.E. (2003) Mammalian Development in Space. Advances Space Biology Medicine, 9, 217-251.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1569-2574(03)09009-9
[19]
Ronca, A.E., Baker, E.S., Bavendam, T.G., Beck, K.D., et al. (2014) Effects of Sex and Gender on Adaptations to Space: Reproductive Health. Journal Women’s Health, 23, 967-974. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2014.4915
[20]
Ploutz-Synder, L., Bloomfield, S., Smith, S.M., Hunter, S.K., et al. (2014) Effects of Sex and Gender on Adaptation to Space: Musculoskeletal Health. Journal of Women’s Health, 23, 963-966.
https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2014.4910
[21]
Liu-Ambrose, T., Barha, C. and Falck, R.S. (2019) Active Body, Healthy Brain: Exercise for Healthy Cognitive Aging. International Reviews Neurobiology, 147, 95-120. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.irn.2019.07.004
[22]
Falck, R.S., David, J.C., Best, J.R., Crockett, R.A. and Liu-Ambrose, T. (2019) Impact of Exercise Training on Physical and Cognitive Function among Older Adults: A Systematic Review and meta-Analysis. Neurobiology Aging, 79, 119-130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2019.03.007
[23]
Smith, S.M., Zwart, S.R., Heer, M., Hudson, E.K., et al. (2014) Men and Women in Space: Bone Loss and Kidney Stone Risk after Long-Duration Spaceflight. Journal Bone Mineral Research, 29, 1639-1645.
[24]
Achari, Y., Reno, C.R., Tsao, H., Morck, D.W. and Hart, D.A. (2008) Influence of Timing (Pre-Puberty or Skeletal Maturity) of Ovariohysterectomy on mRNA Levels in Corneal Tissues of Female Rabbits. Molecular Vision, 14, 443-455.
[25]
Achari, Y., Reno, C.R., Morck, D.W. and Hart, D.A. (2010) Influence of bilateral Medial Collateral Ligament Injury on mRNA Expression in Distal Corneal Tissues of Control and Ovariohysterectomized Rabbits. Cornea, 29, 418-431. https://doi.org/10.1097/ICO.0b013e3181bd45ec
[26]
Ijiri, K. (2004) Ten Years after Medaka Fish Mated and Laid Eggs in Space and Further Preparation for the Life-Cycle Experiment on ISS. Biology Science Space, 18, 138-130
[27]
Ronca, A.E., Fritzsch, B., Bruce, L.L. and Alberts, J.R. (2008) Orbital Spaceflight during Pregnancy Shapes Function of Mammalian Vestibular System. Behavioral Neuroscience, 122, 224-232.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7044.122.1.224
[28]
Ronca, A.E. (2001) Altered Gravity Effects on Mothers and Offspring: The Importance of Maternal Behavior. Journal Gravitational Physiology, 8, 133-136.
[29]
Mulavara, A.P., Peters, B.T., Miller, C.A., Kofman, I.S., et al. (2018) Physiological and Functional Alterations after Spaceflight and Bed Rest. Medical Science Sports Exercise, 50, 1961-1980.
https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000001615
[30]
Hargens, A.R. and Vico, L. (1985) Long-Duration Bed Rest as an Analog to Microgravity. Journal Applied Physiology, 120, 891-903. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00935.2015
[31]
Hughson, R.L., Robertson, A.D., Arbeille, P., Shoemaker, J.K., et al. (2016) Increased Postflight Carotid Artery Stiffness and Inflight Insulin Resistance Resulting from 6-Mo Spaceflight in Male and Female Astronauts. American Journal Physiology Heart Circulation Physiology, 31, H628-H638.
https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.00802.2015
Ray, E.K. (1991) Introduction: Are Aging and Space Effects Similar? Experimental Gerontology, 26, 123-129.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0531-5565(91)90002-4
[34]
Hart, D.A. (2019) Influence of Space Environments in System Physiologic and Molecular Integrity: Redefining the Concept of Human Health beyond the Boundary Conditions of Earth. Journal Biomedical Science Engineering, 12, 400-408. https://doi.org/10.4236/jbise.2019.128031
[35]
Garrett-Bakelman, F.E., Darshi, M., Green, S.J., Gur, R.C., et al. (2019) The NASA Twins Study: A Multidimensional Analysis of a Year Long Human Spaceflight. Science, 364, eaau8650.
[36]
Champagne, F.A. (2016) Epigenetic Legacy of Parental Experiences: Dynamic and Interactive Pathways to Inheritance. Developmental Psychopathology, 28, 1219-1228. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579416000808
[37]
Yeshurun, S. and Hannan, A.J. (2019) Transgenerational Epigenetic Influences on Paternal Environmental Exposures on Brain Function and Predisposition to Psychiatric Disorders. Molecular Psychiatry, 24, 536-548.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-018-0039-z
[38]
Siddeek, B., Manduit, C., Simeoni, U. and Benahmed, M. (2018) Sperm Epigenome as a Marker of Environmental Exposure and Lifestyle, at the Origins of Diseases Inheritance. Mutation Research, 778, 38-44.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrrev.2018.09.001
[39]
Bellairs, R. (1994) Experiments on Embryos in Space: An Overview. Advances Space Research, 14, 179-187.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-1177(94)90402-2
[40]
Sekulic, R.S., Lukac, D.D. and Naumovic, N.M. (2005) The Fetus Cannot Exercise Like an Astronaut: Gravity Loading Is Necessary for the Physiological Development during Second Half of Pregnancy. Medical Hypotheses, 64, 221-228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2004.08.012
[41]
Ahmed, F. (2010) Epigenetics: Tales of Adversity. Nature, 468, S20. https://doi.org/10.1038/468S20a
[42]
Vaiserman, A. (2011) Early-Life Origin of Adult Disease: Evidence from Natural Experiments. Experimental Gerontology, 46, 189-192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exger.2010.08.031
[43]
Hart, D.A. (2018) Are We Learning as Much as Possible from Spaceflight to Better Understand Health and Risks to Health on Earth, as Well as in Space? Journal Biomedical Science Engineering, 11, 109-118.
https://doi.org/10.4236/jbise.2018.116010
[44]
Kazachenka, A., Bertuzzi, T.M., Sjoberg-Herrera, M.K., Walker, N., et al. (2018) Identification, Characterization, and Heritability of Murine Metastable Epialleles: Implications for Non-Genetic Inheritance. Cell, 175, 1259-1271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2018.09.043
