CMAQ was implemented in the central region of Saudi Arabia and the effect of simulating models using various chemical mechanisms on selected oxidants, nitrogen species, and O3 was investigated. CB05TUCL predicted OH, MEPX, and NOz about 7%, 7.7%, and 8% more than CB05E51 respectively; however, there was no observable difference in the O3 predictions. The differences in variations of SAPRC07 mechanism (SAPRC07TB, SAPRC07TC, and SAPRC07TIC) for all parameters were less than 1%. RACM2 produced the highest OH and H2O2 concentrations. RACM2 enhanced OH production in the range of 24% - 32% and H2O2 by 9% over other mechanisms; these are comparatively less than the findings of other studies. Similarly, CB05 produced over 40% more PAN concentration than CB05. Moreover, PAN concentrations produced by all mechanisms were very high compared to other studies. SAPRC07 produced approximately 3% more mean surface O3 concentration than RACM2 and approximately 10% more than CB05. RACM2 O3 predictions were higher than CB05 by 7%. The predicted O3 concentrations by CB05, RACM2, and SAPRC07 were 6%, 11%, and 15% more than the average observed concentrations, which indicate that closest predictions to the observed values were by CB05. This study concludes that there is a wide variation of mechanisms with respect to the predictions of oxidants and nitrogen compounds; however, less variation is noticed in predictions of O3. For any air pollution control strategies and photochemical modeling studies in the current region or in any other arid regions, the CB05 mechanism is recommended.
References
[1]
Gery, M.W., Whitten, G.Z., Killus, J.P. and Dodge, M.C. (1989) A Photochemical Kinetics Mechanism for Urban and Regional Scale Computer Modeling. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 94, 12925-12956. https://doi.org/10.1029/JD094iD10p12925
[2]
Stockwell, W.R. (1986) A Homogeneous Gas Phase Mechanism for Use in a Regional Acid Deposition Model. Atmospheric Environment, 20, 1615-1632. https://doi.org/10.1016/0004-6981(86)90251-9
[3]
Carter, W.P. (2000) Implementation of the SAPRC-99 Chemical Mechanism into the Models-3 Framework. Report to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC.
[4]
Carter, W.P. and Atkinson, R. (1996) Development and Evaluation of a Detailed Mechanism for the Atmospheric Reactions of Isoprene and NOx. International Journal of Chemical Kinetics, 28, 497-530. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4601(1996)28:7<497::AID-KIN4>3.0.CO;2-Q
[5]
Yarwood, G., Rao, S., Yocke, M. and Whitten, G. (2005) Updates to the Carbon Bond Chemical Mechanism: CB05. Final Report to the US EPA, RT-0400675. http://www.camx.com http://www.camx.com/files/cb05_final_report_120805.aspx
[6]
Sarwar, G., Luecken, D., Yarwood, G., Whitten, G.Z. and Carter, W.P. (2008) Impact of an Updated Carbon Bond Mechanism on Predictions from the CMAQ Modeling System: Preliminary Assessment. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 47, 3-14. https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JAMC1393.1
[7]
Whitten, G.Z., Heo, G., Kimura, Y., McDonald-Buller, E., Allen, D.T., Carter, W.P. and Yarwood, G. (2010) A New Condensed Toluene Mechanism for Carbon Bond: CB05-TU. Atmospheric Environment, 44, 5346-5355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.12.029
[8]
Digar, A., Cohan, D.S., Cox, D.D., Kim, B.U. and Boylan, J.W. (2010) Likelihood of Achieving Air Quality Targets under Model Uncertainties. Environmental Science & Technology, 45, 189-196. https://doi.org/10.1021/es102581e
[9]
Foley, K.M., Napelenok, S.L., Jang, C., Phillips, S., Hubbell, B.J. and Fulcher, C.M. (2014) Two Reduced form Air Quality Modeling Techniques for Rapidly Calculating Pollutant Mitigation Potential across Many Sources, Locations and Precursor Emission Types. Atmospheric Environment, 98, 283-289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.08.046
[10]
Foley, K.M., Hogrefe, C., Pouliot, G., Possiel, N., Roselle, S.J., Simon, H. and Timin, B. (2015) Dynamic Evaluation of CMAQ Part I: Separating the Effects of Changing Emissions and Changing Meteorology on Ozone Levels between 2002 and 2005 in the Eastern US. Atmospheric Environment, 103, 247-255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.12.038
[11]
Appel, K.W., Roselle, S.J., Gilliam, R.C. and Pleim, J.E. (2010) Sensitivity of the Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) Model v4.7 Results for the Eastern United States to MM5 and WRF Meteorological Drivers. Geoscientific Model Development, 3, 169-188. https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-3-169-2010
[12]
Li, L., Chen, C., Huang, C., Huang, H., Zhang, G., Wang, Y., Chen, M., Wang, H., Chen, Y., Streets, D.G. and Fu, J. (2011) Ozone Sensitivity Analysis with the MM5-CMAQ Modeling System for Shanghai. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 23, 1150-1157. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(10)60527-X
[13]
Gupta, M. and Mohan, M. (2015) Validation of WRF/Chem Model and Sensitivity of Chemical Mechanisms to Ozone Simulation over Megacity Delhi. Atmospheric Environment, 122, 220-229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.09.039
[14]
Dunker, A.M., Yarwood, G., Ortmann, J.P. and Wilson, G.M. (2002) The Decoupled Direct Method for Sensitivity Analysis in a Three-Dimensional Air Quality Model Implementation, Accuracy, and Efficiency. Environmental Science & Technology, 36, 2965-2976. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0112691
[15]
IUPAC (2010) IUPAC Subcommittee for Gas Kinetic Data Evaluation. http://www.iupac-kinetic.ch.cam.ac.uk
[16]
Stockwell, W.R., Middleton, P., Chang, J.S. and Tang, X. (1990) The Second Generation Regional Acid Deposition Model Chemical Mechanism for Regional Air Quality Modeling. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 95, 16343-16367. https://doi.org/10.1029/JD095iD10p16343
[17]
Zimmermann, J. and Poppe, D. (1996) A Supplement for the RADM2 Chemical Mechanism: The Photooxidation of Isoprene. Atmospheric Environment, 30, 1255-1269. https://doi.org/10.1016/1352-2310(95)00417-3
[18]
Goliff, W.S., Stockwell, W.R. and Lawson, C.V. (2013) The Regional Atmospheric Chemistry Mechanism, Version 2. Atmospheric Environment, 68, 174-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.11.038
[19]
Sander, S.P., Abbatt, J.P.D., Barker, J.R., Burkholder, J.B., Friedl, R.R., Golden, D.M., Huie, R.E., Kolb, C.E., Kurylo, M.J., Moortgat, G.K., Orkin, V.L. and Wine, P.H. (2011) Chemical Kinetics and Photochemical Data for Use in Atmospheric Studies, Evaluation No. 17. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena.
[20]
Zheng, B., Zhang, Q., Zhang, Y., He, K.B., Wang, K., Zheng, G.J., Duan, F.K., Ma, Y.L. and Kimoto, T. (2015) Heterogeneous Chemistry: A Mechanism Missing in Current Models to Explain Secondary Inorganic Aerosol Formation during the January 2013 Haze Episode in North China. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 15, 2031-2049. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-2031-2015
[21]
Baró, R., Jiménez-Guerrero, P., Balzarini, A., Curci, G., Forkel, R., Grell, G., Hirtl, M., Honzak, L., Langer, M., Pérez, J.L. and Pirovano, G. (2015) Sensitivity Analysis of the Microphysics Scheme in WRF-Chem Contributions to AQMEII Phase 2. Atmospheric Environment, 115, 620-629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.01.047
[22]
Jimenez, P., Baldasano, J.M. and Dabdub, D. (2003) Comparison of Photochemical Mechanisms for Air Quality Modeling. Atmospheric Environment, 37, 4179-4194. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(03)00567-3
[23]
Gross, A. and Stockwell, W.R. (2003) Comparison of the EMEP, RADM2 and RACM Mechanisms. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 44, 151-170. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022483412112
[24]
Tonnesen, G.S. and Luecken, D. (2004) Intercomparison of Photochemical Mechanisms Using Response Surfaces and Process Analysis. In: Air Pollution Modeling and Its Application XIV, Springer, Berlin, 511-519. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-47460-3_52
[25]
Byun, D. and Schere, K.L. (2006) Review of the Governing Equations, Computational Algorithms, and Other Components of the Models-3 Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) Modeling System. Applied Mechanics Reviews, 59, 51-77. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2128636
[26]
Faraji, M., Kimura, Y., McDonald-Buller, E. and Allen, D. (2008) Comparison of the Carbon Bond and SAPRC Photochemical Mechanisms under Conditions Relevant to Southeast Texas. Atmospheric Environment, 42, 5821-5836. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.07.048
[27]
Luecken, D.J., Phillips, S., Sarwar, G. and Jang, C. (2008) Effects of Using the CB05 vs. SAPRC99 vs. CB4 Chemical Mechanism on Model Predictions: Ozone and Gas-Phase Photochemical Precursor Concentrations. Atmospheric Environment, 42, 5805-5820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.08.056
[28]
Sarwar, G., Godowitch, J., Henderson, B.H., Fahey, K., Pouliot, G., Hutzell, W.T., Mathur, R., Kang, D., Goliff, W.S. and Stockwell, W.R. (2013) A Comparison of Atmospheric Composition Using the Carbon Bond and Regional Atmospheric Chemistry Mechanisms. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 13, 9695-9712. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-9695-2013
[29]
Meo, S.A., Al-Kheraiji, M.F.A., AlFaraj, Z.F., Alwehaibi, N.A. and Aldereihim, A.A. (2013) Respiratory and General Health Complaints in Subjects Exposed to Sandstorm at Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 29, 642-646. https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.292.3065
[30]
Rushdi, A.I., Al-Mutlaq, K.F., Al-Otaibi, M., El-Mubarak, A.H. and Simoneit, B.R. (2013) Air Quality and Elemental Enrichment Factors of Aerosol Particulate Matter in Riyadh City, Saudi Arabia. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 6, 585-599. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-011-0357-9
[31]
Alharbi, B., Shareef, M.M. and Husain, T. (2015) Study of Chemical Characteristics of Particulate Matter Concentrations in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 6, 88-98. https://doi.org/10.5094/APR.2015.011
[32]
CMAS (2016) Community Modeling & Analysis System. https://www.cmascenter.org/cmaq/
[33]
Cohan, D.S., Koo, B. and Yarwood, G. (2010) Influence of Uncertain Reaction Rates on Ozone Sensitivity to Emissions. Atmospheric Environment, 44, 3101-3109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.05.034
[34]
Simon, H., Baker, K.R., Akhtar, F., Napelenok, S.L., Possiel, N., Wells, B. and Timin, B. (2013) A Direct Sensitivity Approach to Predict Hourly Ozone Resulting from Compliance with the National Ambient Air Quality Standard. Environmental Science & Technology, 47, 2304-2313. https://doi.org/10.1021/es303674e
[35]
Wang, L., Xu, J., Yang, J., Zhao, X., Wei, W., Cheng, D., Pan, X. and Su, J. (2012) Understanding Haze Pollution over the Southern Hebei Area of China Using the CMAQ Model. Atmospheric Environment, 56, 69-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.04.013
[36]
Huang, K., Fu, J.S., Hsu, N.C., Gao, Y., Dong, X., Tsay, S.C. and Lam, Y.F. (2013) Impact Assessment of Biomass Burning on Air Quality in Southeast and East Asia during BASE-ASIA. Atmospheric Environment, 78, 291-302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.03.048
[37]
Arunachalam, S., Wang, B., Davis, N., Baek, B.H. and Levy, J.I. (2011) Effect of Chemistry-Transport Model Scale and Resolution on Population Exposure to PM 2.5 from Aircraft Emissions during Landing and Takeoff. Atmospheric Environment, 45, 3294-3300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.03.029
[38]
Skamarock, W.C., Klemp, J.B., Dudhia, J., Grill, D.O., Barker, D.M., Duda, M.G., Huang, X.-Y., Wang, W. and Powers, J.G. (2008) A Description of the Advanced Research WRF Version 3. NCAR Tech Note NCAR/TN 475 STR, Boulder.
[39]
Sandu, A., Verwer, J.G., Blom, J.G., Spee, E.J., Carmichael, G.R. and Potra, F.A. (1997) Benchmarking Stiff ODE Solvers for Atmospheric Chemistry Problems II: Rosenbrock Solvers. Atmospheric Environment, 31, 3459-3472. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(97)83212-8
[40]
Harley, R.A., Brown, N.J., Tonse, S.R. and Jin, L. (2006) A Seasonal Perspective on Regional Air Quality in Central California: Phase I Final Report for San Joaquin Valley Wide Air Pollution Study Agency and the California Air Resources Board, Report. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley. https://doi.org/10.2172/913278
[41]
Guenther, A.B., Jiang, X., Heald, C.L., Sakulyanontvittaya, T., Duhl, T., Emmons, L.K. and Wang, X. (2012) The Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature Version 2.1 (MEGAN2. 1): An Extended and Updated Framework for Modeling Biogenic Emissions. Geosciences Model Development, 5, 1471-1492. https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-5-1471-2012
[42]
MEGAN (2014) Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature (MEGAN). https://bai.ess.uci.edu/megan/versions
[43]
ESRI Environment Science Research Institute (2016). http://www.esri.com
[44]
Carter, W.P.L. (2015) Development of an Improved Chemical Speciation Database for Processing Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds for Air Quality Models. http://www.engr.ucr.edu/~carter/emitdb
[45]
Lu, K.D., et al. (2013) Missing OH Source in a Suburban Environment near Beijing: Observed and Modelled OH and HO2 Concentrations in Summer 2006. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 13, 1057-1080. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-1057-2013
[46]
Seinfeld, J.H. and Pandis, S.N. (2012) Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken.
[47]
Kim, Y., Sartelet, K. and Seigneur, C. (2009) Comparison of Two Gas-Phase Chemical Kinetic Mechanisms of Ozone Formation over Europe. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 62, 89-119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10874-009-9142-5
[48]
Shearer, S.M., Harley, R.A., Jin, L. and Brown, N.J. (2012) Comparison of SAPRC99 and SAPRC07 Mechanisms in Photochemical Modeling for Central California. Atmospheric Environment, 46, 205-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.09.079
[49]
Kleinman, L.I., Daum, P.H., Lee, Y.N., Nunnermacker, L.J., Springston, S.R., Weinstein-Lloyd, J. and Rudolph, J. (2002) Ozone Production Efficiency in an Urban Area. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 107, ACH 23-1-ACH 23-12. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002529
[50]
Arnold, J.R. and Dennis, R.L. (2006) Testing CMAQ Chemistry Sensitivities in Base Case and Emissions Control Runs at SEARCH and SOS99 Surface Sites in the Southeastern US. Atmospheric Environment, 40, 5027-5040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.05.055
Iacono, M.J., Delamere, J.S., Mlawer, E.J., Shephard, M.W., Clough, S.A. and Collins, W.D. (2008) Radiative Forcing by Long-Lived Greenhouse Gases: Calculations with the AER Radiative Transfer Models. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 113. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD009944
[53]
Chen, F. and Dudhia, J. (2001) Coupling an Advanced Land Surface-Hydrology Model with the Penn State-NCAR MM5 Modeling System. Part I: Model Implementation and Sensitivity. Monthly Weather Review, 129, 569-585. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2001)129<0569:CAALSH>2.0.CO;2
[54]
Janjic, Z.I. (1994) The Step-Mountain Eta Coordinate Model: Further Developments of the Convection, Viscous Sublayer, and Turbulence Closure Schemes. Monthly Weather Review, 122, 927-945. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1994)122<0927:TSMECM>2.0.CO;2
[55]
Kain, J.S. (2004) The Kain-Fritsch Convective Parameterization: An Update. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 43, 170-181. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(2004)043<0170:TKCPAU>2.0.CO;2
