In the European Mediterranean area, the lack of available water resources had led to consider the reclaimed urban waters as an integral part of water resources. Reclaimed urban waters could mitigate water shortage, support agriculture sector and protect rivers and groundwater resources. This work is focused on the evaluation of reclaimed urban water (RW) from Algarrobo municipality, which is located in the Málaga province in the Mediterranean coast at South-East of Spain. Wastewater in the municipal waste water treatment plant, was treated by a membrane bioreactor (MBR) as a tertiary treatment. The main goal of this work was to determine the composition of RW to be compared with fresh local water (LW) from the Algarrobo River, in order to evaluate its suitability for irrigation. Electrical conductivity (EC), pH, sodium absorption ratio (SAR), and mineral content were weekly measured from September 2017 until June 2018. Assessment of RW quality was carried out considering the limit values for each parameter as stated by the current Spanish legislation RD 1620/2007 for reuse of reclaimed water and European Directive for water reuse (EU 91/271/EEC, Annex I). The MBR facility was also focused on preserving essential minerals for plant nutrition to use them for crop fertilization instead of commercial fertilizers. The average content of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium were, respectively, 72%, 65% and 46% of the amount needed for the Hoagland 1/4 strength solution that was used in this study for irrigation of tomato, avocado and mango crops. From this study it appears that it is possible using membrane technology, to treat urban wastewater in order to supply a good quality of water for irrigation. Water analysis has also proved MBR to be efficient for removal of microbiological pollutants, inorganic compounds, some trace elements and heavy metals. The assessment of RW shows that the evaluated parameters of water-quality are within the range of values stated by Spanish legislation and the current European Directive for secure use of reclaimed water for irrigation.
References
[1]
Pretty J. and Bharucha Z.P. (2014) Sustainable Intensification in Agricultural Systems. Annals of Botany, 114, 1571-1596. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcu205
[2]
European Commission (2018) Water Is Too Precious to Waste. European Commission. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/pdf/water_reuse_factsheet_en.pdf
[3]
Furumai, H. (2008) Rainwater and Reclaimed Wastewater for Sustainable Urban Water Use. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 33, 340-346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2008.02.029
[4]
Alonso, M.C., Dionisio, L.P.C., Bosch, A., Pereira de Moura, B.S., García-Rosado, E. and Borrego, J.J. (2006) Microbiological Quality of Reclaimed Water Used for Golf Courses’ Irrigation. Water Science and Technology, 54, 109-117. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2006.456
[5]
Oron, G., Armon, R., Mandelbaum, R., Manor, Y., Campos, C., Gillerman, L., Salgot, M., Gerba, C., Klein, I. and Enriquez, C. (2001) Secondary Wastewater Disposal for Crop Irrigation with Minimal Risks. Water Science and Technology, 43, 139-146. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2001.0603
[6]
Santafé-Moros, A., Gozálvez-Zafrilla, J.M. and Lora-García, J. (2005) Performance of Commercial Nanofiltration Membranes in the Removal of Nitrate Ions. Desalination, 185, 281-287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2005.02.080
[7]
Nghiem, L.D. and Hawkes, S. (2009) Effects of Membrane Fouling on the Nanofiltration of Trace Organic Contaminants. Desalination, 236, 273-281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2007.10.077
[8]
Fazal, S., Zhang, B., Zhong, Z., Gao, L. and Chen, X. (2015) Industrial Wastewater Treatment by Using MBR (Membrane Bioreactor) Review Study. Journal of Environmental Protection, 6, 584-598. https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2015.66053
[9]
Diop, S.N., Diallo, M.A., Diawara, C.K. and Cot, D. (2011) Intrinsic Properties and Performances of NF270 and XLE Membranes for Water Filtration. Water Science & Technology: Water Supply, 11, 186-193. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2011.024
[10]
Diawara, C.K. (2008) Nanofiltration Process Efficiency in Water Desalination. Separation & Purification Reviews, 37, 303-325. https://doi.org/10.1080/15422110802228770
[11]
Rolim, J., Teixeira, J.L., Catalão, J. and Shahidian, S. (2017) The Impacts of Climate Change on Irrigated Agriculture in Southern Portugal. Irrigation and Drainage, 66, 3-18. https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.1996
[12]
Vogeler, I. (2009) Effect of Long-Term Wastewater Application on Physical Soil Properties. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 196, 385-392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-008-9785-x
[13]
Romero-Aranda, R., Moya, J.L., Tadeo, F.R., Legaz, F., Primo-Millo, E. and Talón, M. (1998) Physiological and Anatomical Disturbances Induced by Chloride Salts in Sensitive and Tolerant Citrus: Beneficial and Detrimental Effects of Cations. Plant, Cell and Environment, 21, 1243-1253. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3040.1998.00349.x
[14]
Romero-Aranda, R., Soria, T. and Cuartero, J. (2001) Tomato Plant-Water Uptake and Plant-Water Relationships under Saline Growth Conditions. Plant Science, 160, 265-272. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-9452(00)00388-5
[15]
Taigbenu, E. and Ncube, M. (2005) Reclaimed Water as an Alternative Source of Water for the City of Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 30, 762-766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2005.08.017
RD Real Decreto 1620/2007 (2007) El Régimen Jurídico de la Reutilización de las Aguas Depuradas. BOE, 294, 50639-50661. https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2007/12/08/pdfs/A50639-50661.pdf
[18]
European Council Directive 91/271/EEC, Annex I (1991) Concerning Urban Waste-Water Treatment. Official Journal of the European Communities, L135, 40-52. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:31991L0271&from=en
[19]
US Environmental Protection Agency Method 1604 (2002) Total Coliforms and Escherichia coli in Water by Membrane Filtration Using a Simultaneous Detection Technique (MI Medium). Rept. Mo. EPA 821-R-02-024, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC. http://www.epa.gov/microbes/documents/1604sp02.pdf
[20]
Silva, G.S., Santos, J.M. and Ferraz, S. (1988) Novo Método de Coloraçao de Ootecas de Meloidogyne spp. Nematologia Brasilense, 12, 6-7.
[21]
WHO (2006) Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater. Volume 2, Wastewater Use in Agriculture. World Health Organization, Geneva. https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/gsuweg2/en/
[22]
Yeo A.R. and Flower T.J. (2007) Plant Solute Transport. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., New Delhi. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470988862
[23]
US Environmental Protection Agency (2004) Guideline for Water Reuse. EPA 645-R-04-108, Environmental Protection Agency,Washinong DC. http://water.epa.gov/aboutow/owm/upload/Water-Reuse-Guidelines-625r04108.pff
[24]
Hu, K., Huang, Y., Li, H., Li, B., Chen, D. and White, R.E. (2005) Spatial Variability of Shallow Groundwater Levels, Electrical Conductivity and Nitrate Concentration and Risk Assessment of Nitrate Contamination in North China Plain. Environmental International Journal, 31, 896-903. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2005.05.028
[25]
Romero-Aranda, R., Soria, T. and Cuartero, J. (2002) Greenhouse Mist Improves Yield of Tomato Plants Grown under Saline Conditions. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 127, 644-648. http://journal.ashspublications.org/content/127/4/644.abstract
[26]
Romero-Aranda, R., Jurado, O. and Cuartero, J. (2006) Silicon Alleviates the Deleterious Salt Effect on Tomato Plant Growth by Improving Plant Water Status. Journal of Plant Physiology, 163, 847-855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jplph.2005.05.010
[27]
Ruiz-Baena, N. (2008) Water Quality for Irrigation. UNESCO Catalogue. Agricultural Engineering 310200. https://www.juntadeandalucia.es/agriculturaypesca/ifapa/web/contenidoAlf?id=379b1c81-3e50-4d39-b0e1-fd677fd69822
[28]
Ruiz-Baena, N. (2008) The Salinity of Irrigation Water and Soil. UNESCO catalogue. Agricultural Engineering 310200. https://www.juntadeandalucia.es/agriculturaypesca/ifapa/web/contenidoAlf?id=f0645953-09e7-4b60-8d40-6b69c528a2f8
[29]
Ayers, R.S. and Westcot, D.W. (1985) Water Quality for Agriculture. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/T0234E/T0234E00.htm
