Background: Breast cancer remains an important medical
challenge, despite sustained global efforts at its prevention and control.
Various immunological factors are expressed in the serum during breast
tumourigenesis, and can be of value in the surveillance of the disease. These
serum bio-markers include pro-inflammatory cytokines since breast cancer is
associated with chronic inflammation. In our locality with different
racial/ethnic variations from Caucasian as well as environmental factors, there
is scanty information on the value of these serum factors in screening and
surveillance of breast cancer—hence the need
for this study. Methodology: A total of 68 females (mean age = 48.7± 8.7yrs) with clinically and
pathologically confirmed breast cancer were recruited by self selection;
representing breast cancer patients group. Due to small sample size they were
further grouped into advanced stage breast cancer cases (N=40) and early stage breast cancer cases (N=28). Controls consisted of two groups: A—Patient
control group (N=21) comprised females with
benign breast tumour (15 cases with fibroadenoma and 6 cases with fibrocystic
disease) and group B—apparently healthy age/sex matched control group (N=21). Pre-treatment samples
References
[1]
Sasco, A.J. (2001) Epidemiology of Breast Cancer: An Environmental Disease? Acta Pathologica Microbiologica Et Immunologica Scandinavica, 109, 321-332.
https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0463.2001.090501.x
[2]
World Health Organization-WHO (2008) World Cancer Report 2008. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Natureprint, Lyon Cedex.
[3]
Porter, P.L. (2009) Global Trends in Breast Cancer Incidence and Mortality. SaludPublica de Mexico, 51, 141-146. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0036-36342009000800003
[4]
Easton, D.F. (2005) Study Shows Women of African Ancestry Diagnosed with More Virulent Form of Breast Cancer. The University of Chicgo Chronicle, 24, 1-3.
[5]
Fregene, A. and Newman, L.A. (2005) Breast Cancer in Sub-Saharan Africa. How Does It Relate to Breast Cancer in African-American Women. Cancer, 103, 1540-1550. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.20978
[6]
Kruger, W.M. and Apffelstaedt, J.P. (2007) Young Breast Cancer Patients in the Developing World: Incidence, Choice of Surgical Treatment and Genetic Factors. South African Family Practice, 49, 18-24.
https://doi.org/10.1080/20786204.2007.10873634
[7]
Norod, A.A., Brunet, J.F., Ghadirian, A., Robson, M., Heimdal, K., Neuhansen, S.L., Stoppa-Lyonnet, D., Lema, C., Pasini, B., de jos Rios, P., Weber, B., Lynch, H. and Hereditary Breast Cancer Clinical Study Group (2000) Tamoxifen and Risk of Contralateral Breast Cancer in BRCA1 and BRCA2 Mutation Carriers: A Case Control Study. Lancet, 356, 1876-1881.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)03258-X
[8]
Kauff, N.D., Satagopan, J.M., Robson, M.E., Schener, L., Hensley, M., Hudis, C.A., Ellis, N.A., Boyd, J., Borgen, P.I., Barakat, R.R., Norton, L., Cartjel, M., Nafak, K. and Offit, K. (2002) Risk Reducing Salpingo-Oophorectomy in Women with BRCA1 and BRCA2 Mutation. New England Journal of Medicine, 346, 1609-1615.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa020119
[9]
Osborn, C., Ostir, G.V., Du, X., Peek, M.K. and Goodwin, J.S. (2005) The Influence of Marital Status on the Stage at Diagnosis, Treatment and Survival of Older Women with Breast Cancer. Breast cancer Research and Treatment, 93, 41-47.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10549-005-3702-4
[10]
Celik, S. and Aksoy, G. (2007) Identification of Risk Factors for Breast Cancer for Women in Istanbul. The Open Nursing Journal, 1, 6-12.
https://doi.org/10.2174/1874434600701010006
[11]
Webster, T.F., Hoffman, K., Weinberg, J., Vieira, V. and Aschengrau, A. (2008) Community- and Individual-Level Socio-Economic Status and Breast Cancer Risk: Multilevel Modeling on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Environmental Health Perspective, 116, 1125-1129. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.10818
[12]
Janeway, C.A., Travers, P. and Walport, M. (2001) The Immune System in Health and Disease. Garland Science Publication, New York, 145-153.
[13]
Grivennikov, S.I. and Kari, M. (2011) Inflammatory Cytokines in Cancer: TNF and IL-6 Take the Stage. Annals of Rheumatic Diseases, 1, 1104-1108.
[14]
Mocellin, S., Wang, E. and Marincola, F.M. (2001) Cytokines and Immune Response in the Tumor Microenvironment. Journal of Immunotherapy, 24, 392-407.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00002371-200109000-00002
[15]
Suganuma, M., Okabe, S., Kurusu, M., Lida, N., Ohshima, S., Saeki, Y., Kishimoto, T. and Fujiki, H. (2002) Discrete Roles of Cytokines, TNF-Alpha, IL-6, IL-1 in Tumour Promotion and Cell Transformation. International Journal of Oncology, 28, 131-136.
[16]
Scott, K.A., Moore, R.J., Amott, C.H., East, N., Thompson, R.G., Scallon, B.J., Shealy, D.J. and Balkwill, F.R. (2003) An Anti-Tumour Necrosis Factor-α Antibodies Inhibits the Development of Experimental Skin Tumour. Molecular Cancer Therapeutics, 2, 445-451.
[17]
Zhaorigetu, S., Yanaka, N., Sasaki, M., Watanabe, H. and Kato, N. (2003) Silk Protein, Sericin, Suppresses DMBA-TPA-Induced Skin Tumourigenesis by Reducing Oxidative Stress, Inflammatory Responses and Endogenous Tumour Promoter TNF-α. Oncology Reports, 10, 537-543.
[18]
Aggarwal, B.B., Shishodia, S., Sandur, S.K., Pandey, M.K. and Sethi, G. (2006) Inflammation and Cancer: How Hot Is the Link? Biochemical Pharmacology, 72, 1605-1621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcp.2006.06.029
[19]
Pfeffer, K. (2003) Biological Functions of Tumor Necrosis Factor Cytokines and Their Receptors. Cytokine & Growth Factor Review, 14, 185-191.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-6101(03)00022-4
[20]
Moore, R.J., Owen, D.M., Stamp, G., Amott, C., Burke, F., East, N., Holdsworth, H., Turner, L., Rollins, B., Pasparakis, M., Kollias, G. and Balkwill, F. (1999) Mice Deficient in TNF-α Are Resistant to Skin Carcinogenesis. Nature Medicine, 5, 828-831. https://doi.org/10.1038/10552
[21]
Mohamed, M.M., Al-Raawi, D., Sabet, S.F. and El-Shinawi, M. (2014) Inflammatory Breast Cancer: New Factors Contribute to Disease Etiology: A Review. Journal of Advanced Research, 5, 525-536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2013.06.004
[22]
Englaro, W., Bahadoran, P., Bertolotto, C., Busca, R., Derijard, B., Livolsi, A., Peyron, J.F., Ortonne, J.P. and Ballotti, R. (1999) Tumor Necrosis Factor α-Mediated Inhibition of Melanogenesis Is Dependent on Nuclear Factor κ B Activation. Oncogene, 18, 1553-1559. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1202446
[23]
Stewart, T.H.M. and Heppner, G.H. (1997) Immunological Enhancement of Breast Cancer. Parasitology, 115, S141-S153. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182097001832
[24]
Guille, A., Chaffanet, M. and Birnbaum, D. (2013) Signaling Pathway Switch in Breast Cancer. Cancer Cell International, 13, 66.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2867-13-66
Dinarello, C.A. (2009) Immunological and Inflammatory Functions of the Interleukin-1 Family. Annual Review of Immunology, 27, 519-550.
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.021908.132612
[27]
Barksby, H.E., Lea, S.R., Preshaw, P.M. and Taylor, J.J. (2007) The Expanding Family of Interleukin-1 Cytokines and Their Role in Destructive Inflammatory Disorders. Clinical Experimental Immunology, 149, 217-225.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2249.2007.03441.x
[28]
Sheen-Chen, S.M., Chen, W.J., Eng, H.L. and Chou, F.F. (1997) Serum Concentration of Tumor Necrosis Factor in Patients with Breast Cancer. Breast Cancer Research & Treatment, 43, 211-215. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005736712307
[29]
Berberoglu, U., Yildirim, E. and Celen, O. (2004) Serum Levels of Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha Correlate with Response to Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy in Locally Advanced Breast Cancer. International Journal of Biological Markers, 19, 130-134.
https://doi.org/10.1177/172460080401900207
[30]
Chaloob, F.A. (2014) Estimation of Serum Levels of GM-CSF, IL-1α and Complement Components C3 and C4 in Patients with Chronic HCV. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 3, 695-699.
[31]
Jin, L., Yuan, R.Q., Fuchs, A., Yao, Y., Joseph, A., Schwall, R., Schnitt, S.J., Guida, A., Hastings, H.M., Andres, J., Turkel, G., Polverini, P.J., Goldberg, I.D. and Rosen, E.M. (1997) Expression of Interleukin-1β in Human Breast Carcinoma. Cancer, 80, 421-434.
https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0142(19970801)80:3<421::AID-CNCR10>3.0.CO;2-Z
[32]
Richardus, J.M. and Kunst, A.E. (2001) Black-White Differences in Infectious Disease Mortality in the United States. American Journal Public Health, 91, 1251-1253.
https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.91.8.1251
[33]
Hoffman, S.C., Stanley, E.M., Cox, E.D., DiMercurio, B.S., Koziol, D.E. and Harlan, D.M. (2002) Ethnicity Greatly Influences Cytokine Gene Polymorphism Distribution. American Journal of Transplantation, 2, 560-567.
https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-6143.2002.20611.x
[34]
Albert, M.A. (2007) Inflammatory Biomarkers, Race/Ethnicity and Cardiovascular Disease. Nutrition Reviews, 65, S234-S238.
https://doi.org/10.1301/nr.2007.dec.S234-S238
[35]
Van Dyke, A.L., Cote, M.L., Wenzlaffa, A.S., Land, S. and Schwartz, A.G. (2009) Cytokine SNPs: Comparison of Allele Frequencies by Race and Implications for Future Studies. Cytokine, 46, 236-244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cyto.2009.02.003
[36]
Silver, R.M., Bogatkevich, G., Tourkina, E., Nietert, P.J. and Hoffman, S. (2012) Racial Differences between Blacks and Whites with Systemic Sclerosis. Current Opinions in Rheumatology, 24, 642-648.
https://doi.org/10.1097/BOR.0b013e328356d9dc
[37]
Pudifin, D.J. and Duursma, J. (1981) Circulating Immune Complexes in Normal Blood Donors of Three Races. South African Medical Journal, 60, 886-887.
[38]
Jemal, A., Siegel, R., Ward, E., Hao, Y., Xu, J. and Murray, T. (2008) Cancer Statistics. Clinical Journal of Cancer, 58, 71-96.
[39]
Chukwurah, E.F., Uro-Chukwu, H.C. and Uneke, C.J. (2017) Assessment of the Knowledge, Attitude and Practice of Breast Cancer Screening among Female Undergraduate Students of Ebonyi State University. Congress Oral Communication Abstracts: 41st West African College of Physicians Annual Congress, Dakar Senegal.
[40]
LaBaer, J. (2013) Autoantibodies in Breast Cancer. Htm Cancer-Biomarkers, Online.
[41]
Chukwurah, E.F., Emele, F.E., Iyare, F.E., Nwigwe, C.G. and Ogbodo, S.O. (2016) Evaluation of Circulating Immune Complexes in Patients with Malignant and Pre-Malignant Disease Conditions of the Breast in South-Eastern Nigeria. Journal of Disease and Global Health, 5, 211-217.
[42]
Emele, F.E. and Chukwurah, E.F. (2017) Evaluation of Serum Cancer Antigens (CA15-3 and CA27.29) and Circulating Immune Complexes as Important Tools in the Management of Breast Cancer in Nigeria. Journal of Immunology, 198, 76.
[43]
Koppolu, P., Durvasula, S., Palaparthy, R., Rao, M., Sagar, V., Reddy, S.K. and Lingam, S. (2013) Estimate of CRP and TNF-Alpha Level before and after Periodontal Therapy in Cardiovascular Disease Patients. Pan African Medical Journal, 15, 92.
https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2013.15.92.2326
[44]
Ben-Baruch, A. (2003) Review: Host Microenviroment in Breast Cancer Development: Inflammatory Cells Cytokines, Chemokines in Breast Cancer Progression: Reciprocal Tumor-Microenviroment Interactions. Breast Cancer Research, 5, 31-36.
https://doi.org/10.1186/bcr554
[45]
Snouss, K., Strosberg, A.D., Bouaouina, N., Ahmed, S.B. and Chouchane, L. (2005) Genetic Variation in Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines (Interleukin-1β, Interleukin-1α and Interleukin-6) Associated with the Aggressive Forms, Survival, and Relapse Prediction of Breast Carcinoma. European Cytokine Network, 16, 253-260.
[46]
Soria, G., Ofri-Shahak, M., Haas, I., Yaal-Hahoshen, N., Leider-Trejo, L., Leibovich-Rivkin, T., Weitzenfeld, P., Meshel, T., Shabtai, E., Gutman, M. and Ben-Baruch, A. (2011) Inflammatory Mediators in Breast Cancer: Coordinated Expression of TNFα and IL-1β with CCL2 and CCL5 and Effects on Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition. BMC Cancer, 11, 130.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2407-11-130
[47]
Wang, X. and Lin, Y. (2008) Tumour Necrosis Factor and Cancer, Buddies or Foes? Acta Pharmacologica Sinica, 29, 1275-1288.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-7254.2008.00889.x
[48]
Pantschenko, A.G., Pushkar, I., Anderson, K.H., Wang, Y., Miller, L.J., Kurtzman, S.H., Barrows, G. and Kreutzer, D.L. (2003) The Interleukin-1 Family of Cytokines and Receptors in Human Breast Cancer: Implications for Tumor Progression. International Journal of Oncology, 23, 269-284.
[49]
Erdemir, G., Ozkan, T.B., Ozgur, T., Budak, F., Kilic, S.S. and Onay, H. (2015) Mannose-Binding Lectin Gene Polymorphism and Chronic Hepatitis B Infection in Children. The Saudi Journal of Gastroenterology, 21, 84-89.
https://doi.org/10.4103/1319-3767.153825
[50]
Ytting, H., Christensen, I.J., Basse, L., Lykke, J., Thiel, S., Jensenius, J.C. and Nielsen, H.J. (2006) Influence of Major Surgery on the Mannan-Binding Lectin Pathway of Innate Immunity. Clinical and Experimental Immunology, 144, 239-246.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2249.2006.03068.x
[51]
Chen, M.S., Liang, Y., Li, W.F., Wang, M., Hu, L., Abuaku, B.K., Huang, X., Tan, H.Z. and Wen, S.W. (2015) Impact of MBL and MASP-2 Gene Polymorphism and Its Interaction on Susceptibility to Tuberculosis. BMC Infectious Diseases, 15, 151. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-015-0879-y
