全部 标题 作者
关键词 摘要

OALib Journal期刊
ISSN: 2333-9721
费用:99美元

查看量下载量

相关文章

更多...

Climatology of Air Quality in Arctic Cities—Inventory and Assessment

DOI: 10.4236/ojap.2018.71004, PP. 48-93

Keywords: Air Pollution in Arctic Cities, Urban Air Quality in the Arctic, Air-Quality Climatology in the Arctic, Arctic Air-Quality Inventory, Arctic Cities

Full-Text   Cite this paper   Add to My Lib

Abstract:

Freely available data of sulfur dioxide (SO2), ammonia (NH3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), and particulate matter (PM) observed in Arctic cities (north of 59.99 N) between 1972 and 2016 were compiled into an air-quality inventory of samples taken for limited periods. For cities with multiple years of data, air-quality climatology was determined in terms of daily means in the annual course. Mean urban air-quality climatology was calculated for regions of similar insolation, emission standards, topography, Köppen-Geiger classification, and city size. Urban concentrations of PM precursors (SO2, NH3, NO2), PM2.5 and PM10 (PM with diameter less than 2.5 and 10 μm) were assessed in the sense of climatology with evidence from current knowledge. Typically, annual SO2 and NO2 means were lower for small than large Arctic cities, but can vary more than an order of magnitude over short distance. Cities seeing seasonal sea-ice had W-shaped mean annual courses of daily O3, while other cities had a spring maximum. Typically, annual means of urban pollutants in North America exceeded those in Scandinavia except for O3, where the opposite was true. Annual mean urban PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations varied from 1.6 to 21.2 μg·m-3 and 2 to 18.2 μg·m-3, respectively. Since PM10 encompasses PM2.5, annual PM10 means must be at least 21.2 μg·m-3. According to rural-to-urban ratios of species, seasonal transport of pollutants from

References

[1]  Edwin, S.G., Mölders, N., Friedrich, K., Schmidt, S. and Thoman, R. (2017) Conditions Supporting Funnel Cloud Development in Alaska. Atmospheric and Climate Sciences, 7, 23.
https://doi.org/10.4236/acs.2017.72016
[2]  Leelasakultum, K., Mölders, N., Tran, H.N.Q. and Grell, G.A. (2012) Potential Impacts of the Introduction of Low Sulfur Fuel on PM2.5-Concentrations at Breathing Level in a Subarctic City. Advances in Meteorology, 2012, 17.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/427078
[3]  Arctic-Council (2009) Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment 2009 Report. In: Ellis, B. and Brigham, L., Eds., Arctic Council, Tromsa, Norway, 194.
[4]  Winiger, P., Andersson, A., Eckhardt, S., Stohl, A. and Gustafsson, ö. (2016) The Sources of Atmospheric Black Carbon at a European Gateway to the Arctic. Nature Communications, 7, Article ID: 12776.
https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms12776
[5]  Dominici, F., Peng, R.D., Bell, M.L., Pham, L., McDermott, A., Zeger, S.L., et al. (2006) Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Hospital Admission for Cardiovascular and Respiratory Diseases. Journal of the American Medical Association, 295, 1127-1134.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.295.10.1127
[6]  Pope, I.C.A., Dockery, D.W. and Schwartz, J. (1995) Review of Epidemiological Evidence of Health Effects of Particulate Air Pollution. Inhalation Toxicology, 7, 1-18.
https://doi.org/10.3109/08958379509014267
[7]  Jerrett, M., Burnett, R.T., Pope III, C.A., Ito, K., Thurston, G., Krewski, D., et al. (2009) Long-Term Ozone Exposure and Mortality. New England Journal of Medicine, 360, 1085-1095.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0803894
[8]  Quarato, M., De Maria, L., Gatti, M., Caputi, A., Mansi, F., Lorusso, P., et al. (2017) Air Pollution and Public Health: A Prisma-Compliant Systematic Review. Atmosphere, 8, 183.
https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos8100183
[9]  World Health Organization (2000) Air Quality Guidelines for Europe. In: Publications, W.R., Ed., European Series, WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen.
[10]  Liu, J.C., Pereira, G., Uhl, S.A., Bravo, M.A. and Bell, M.L. (2015) A Systematic Review of the Physical Health Impacts from Non-Occupational Exposure to Wildfire Smoke. Environmental Research, 136, 120-132.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2014.10.015
[11]  Oftedal, B., Nafstad, P., Magnus, P., Bjørkly, S., et al. (2003) Traffic Related Air Pollution and Acute Hospital Admission for Respiratory Diseases in Drammen, Norway 1995-2000. European Journal of Epidemiology, 18, 671-675.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024884502114
[12]  Halonen, J.I., Lanki, T., Yli-Tuomi, T., Kulmala, M., Tiittanen, P. and Pekkanen, J. (2008) Urban Air Pollution, and Asthma and Copd Hospital Emergency Room Visits. Thorax, 63, 635-641. https://doi.org/10.1136/thx.2007.091371
[13]  Komppula, M., Lihavainen, H., Hatakka, J., Paatero, J., Aalto, P., Kulmala, M., et al. (2003) Observations of New Particle Formation and Size Distributions at Two Different Heights and Surroundings in Subarctic Area in Northern Finland. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 108, Article ID: 4295.
https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002939
[14]  Mölders, N. and Kramm, G. (2014) Lectures in Meteorology. Springer, Heidelberg, 591.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02144-7
[15]  Devasthale, D., Willen, U., Karlsson, K.-G. and Jones, C.G. (2010) Quantifying the Clear-Sky Temperature Inversion Frequency and Strength over the Arctic Ocean During Summer and Winter Seasons from AIRS Profiles. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 10, 5565-5572.
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-5565-2010
[16]  Mölders, N. and Kramm, G. (2010) A Case Study on Wintertime Inversions in Interior Alaska with WRF. Atmospheric Research, 95, 314-332.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2009.06.002
[17]  Tran, H.N.Q. and Mölders, N. (2011) Investigations on Meteorological Conditions for Elevated PM2.5 in Fairbanks, Alaska. Atmospheric Research, 99, 39-49.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2010.08.028
[18]  Mölders, N., Tran, H.N.Q., Quinn, P., Sassen, K., Shaw, G.E. and Kramm, G. (2011) Assessment of WRF/Chem to Capture Sub-Arctic Boundary Layer Characteristics During Low Solar Irradiation Using Radiosonde, Sodar, and Station Data. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 2, 283-299.
https://doi.org/10.5094/APR.2011.035
[19]  Mölders, N., Porter, S.E., Cahill, C.F. and Grell, G.A. (2010) Influence of Ship Emissions on Air Quality and Input of Contaminants in Southern Alaska National Parks and Wilderness Areas During the 2006 Tourist Season. Atmospheric Environment, 44, 1400-1413.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.02.003
[20]  Seinfeld, J.H. and Pandis, S.N. (1997) Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, from Air Pollution to Climate Change. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken.
[21]  Marelle, L., Thomas, J.L., Raut, J.-C., Law, K.S., Jalkanen, J.-P., Johansson, L., et al. (2015) Air Quality and Radiative Impacts of Arctic Shipping Emissions in the Summertime in Northern Norway: From the Local to the Regional Scale. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 15, 18407-18457.
https://doi.org/10.5194/acpd-15-18407-2015
[22]  Law, K.S. and Stohl, A. (2007) Arctic Air Pollution: Origins and Impacts. Science, 315, 1537-1540.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1137695
[23]  Fisher, J.A., Jacob, D.J., Purdy, M.T., Kopacz, M., Le Sager, P., Carouge, C., et al. (2010) Source Attribution and Interannual Variability of Arctic Pollution in Spring Constrained by Aircraft (ARCTAS, ARCPAC) and Satellite (AIRS) Observations of Carbon Monoxide. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 10, 977-996.
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-977-2010
[24]  Tran, T.T., Newby, G. and Mölders, N. (2011) Impacts of Emission Changes on Sulfate Aerosols in Alaska. Atmospheric Environment, 45, 3078-3090.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.03.013
[25]  Law, K.S., Stohl, A., Quinn, P.K., Brock, C.A., Burkhart, J.F., Paris, J.-D., et al. (2014) Arctic Air Pollution: New Insights from POLARCAT-IPY. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 95, 1874-1895.
https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-13-00017.1
[26]  Wendler, G. and Nicpon, P. (1975) Low-Level Temperature Inversion in Fairbanks, Central Alaska. Monthly Weather Review, 103, 34-44.
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1975)103<0034:LLTIIF>2.0.CO;2
[27]  Wendler, G., Conner, J., Moore, B., Shulski, M. and Stuefer, M. (2011) Climatology of Alaskan Wildfires with Special Emphasis on the Extreme Year of 2004. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 104, 459-472.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-010-0357-9
[28]  Mölders, N., Tran, H.N.Q., Cahill, C.F., Leelasakultum, K. and Tran, T.T. (2012) Assessment of WRF/Chem PM2.5 Forecasts Using Mobile and Fixed Location Data from the Fairbanks, Alaska Winter 2008/09 Field Campaign. Air Pollution Research, 3, 180-191.
https://doi.org/10.5094/APR.2012.018
[29]  Mölders, N. (2013) Investigations on the Impact of Single Direct and Indirect, and Multiple Emission-Control Measures on Cold-Season Near-Surface PM2.5 Concentrations in Fairbanks, Alaska. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 4, 87-100.
https://doi.org/10.5094/APR.2013.009
[30]  Asikainen, A., Pärjälä, E., Jantunen, M., Tuomisto, J.T. and Sabel, E.C. (2017) Effects of Local Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategies on Air Pollutant Emissions and on Health in Kuopio, Finland. Climate, 5, 43.
https://doi.org/10.3390/cli5020043
[31]  Tørseth, K., Aas, W., Breivik, K., Fjæraa, A.M., Fiebig, M., Hjellbrekke, A.G., et al. (2012) Introduction to the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) and Observed Atmospheric Composition Change during 1972-2009. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 12, 5447-5481.
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-12-5447-2012
[32]  Kuklinska, K., Wolska, L., and Namiesnik, J. (2015) Air Quality Policy in the U.S. And the EU—A Review. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 6, 129-137.
https://doi.org/10.5094/APR.2015.015
[33]  World Meteorological Organization (1998) 1961-1990 Global Climate Normals (Clino). WMO, Genova.
[34]  Baldasano, J.M., Valera, E. and Jiménez, P. (2003) Air Quality Data from Large Cities. The Science of the Total Environment, 307, 141-165.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00537-5
[35]  Kim, J., Waliser, D.E., Mattmann, C.A., Mearns, L.O., Goodale, C.E., Hart, A.F., et al. (2013) Evaluation of the Surface Climatology over the Conterminous United States in the North American Regional Climate Change Assessment Program Hindcast Experiment Using a Regional Climate Model Evaluation System. Journal of Climate, 26, 5698-5715.
https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00452.1
[36]  World Health Organization (2006) WHO Air Quality Guidelines for Particulate Matter, Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide and Sulfur Dioxide. In: WHO, Ed., Summary of Risk Assessment, World Health Organization, Geneva, 22 p.
[37]  Cheng, S., Chen, D., Li, J., Wang, H. and Guo, X. (2007) The Assessment of Emission-Source Contributions to Air Quality by Using a Coupled MM5-ARPS-CMAQ Modeling System: A Case Study in the Beijing Metropolitan Region, China. Environmental Modelling & Software, 22, 1601-1616.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2006.11.003
[38]  Mölders, N. and Gende, S. (2016) On the Limits to Manage Air-Quality in Glacier Bay. Journal of Environmental Protection, 7, 1923-1955.
https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2016.712151
[39]  von Storch, H. and Zwiers, F.W. (1999) Statistical Analysis in Climate Research. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 484 p.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511612336
[40]  Jacob, D.J. (2000) Heterogeneous Chemistry and Tropospheric Ozone. Atmospheric Environment, 34, 2131-2159.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00462-8
[41]  Kley, D., Geiss, H. and Mohnen, V.A. (1994) Tropospheric Ozone at Elevated Sites and Precursor Emissions in the United States and Europe. Atmospheric Environment, 28, 149-158.
https://doi.org/10.1016/1352-2310(94)90030-2
[42]  Kottek, M., Grieser, J., Beck, C., Rudolf, B. and Rubel, F. (2006) World Map of the Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification Updated. Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 15, 259-263.
https://doi.org/10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130
[43]  Kanamitsu, M., Ebisuzaki, W., Woollen, J., Yang, S.-K., Hnilo, J.J., Fiorino, M., et al. (2002) NCEP-DOE AMIP-II Reanalysis (R-2). Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 83, 1631-1643.
https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-83-11-1631
[44]  Mölders, N. and Kramm, G. (2007) Influence of Wildfire Induced Land-Cover Changes on Clouds and Precipitation in Interior Alaska—A Case Study. Atmospheric Research, 84, 142-168.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2006.06.004
[45]  Shulski, M. and Wendler, G. (2007) The Climate of Alaska. University of Alaska Press, Fairbanks, 216 p.
[46]  Eckhardt, S., Hermansen, O., Grythe, H., Fiebig, M., Stebel, K., Cassiani, M., et al. (2013) The Influence of Cruise Ship Emissions on Air Pollution in Svalbard & Ndash; a Harbinger of a More Polluted Arctic? Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 13, 8401-8409.
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-8401-2013
[47]  Kemp, K. (1984) Long Term Analysis of Marine and Nonmarine Transported Aerosols. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms, 3, 470-474.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-583X(84)90420-8
[48]  Bityukova, V.R. and Kasimov, N.S. (2012) Environmental Impact Assessment of the Mining and Concentration Activities in the Kola Peninsula, Russia by Multidate Remote Sensing—Atmospheric Pollution of Russia’s Cities: Assessment of Emissions and Immissions Based on Statistical Data. Geofizka, 75, 13-33.
[49]  Mokrotovarova, O., Korotkova, T.D., Pavlova, T.V. and Berglen, T.F. (2015) Russian-Norwegian Ambient Air Monitoring in the Border Areas. COLOPHON, Murmansk Regional Administration for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (Murmansk UGMS), Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU), Norwegian Environment Agency, Murmansk, Oslo, 25.
[50]  EDGAR (2011) Edgar-Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research. European Comission-Joint Research Center.
http://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/
[51]  Pirhalla, M.A., Gende, S. and Mölders, N. (2014) Fate of Particulate Matter from Cruise-Ship Emissions in Glacier Bay during the 2008 Tourist Season. Journal of Environmental Protection, 4, 1235-1254.
https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2014.512118
[52]  Lovejoy, E.R., Hanson, D.R. and Huey, L.G. (1996) Kinetics and Products of the Gas-Phase Reaction of SO3 with Water. The Journal of Physical Chemistry, 100, 19911-19916.
https://doi.org/10.1021/jp962414d
[53]  Corbett, J.J., Lack, D.A., Winebrake, J.J., Harder, S., Silberman, A.J. and Gold, M. (2010) Arctic Shipping Emissions Inventories and Future Scenarios. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 10, 9689-9704.
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-9689-2010
[54]  Karlsson, P.E., Ferm, M., Tømmervik, H., Hole, L.R., Pihl Karlsson, G., Ruoho-Airola, T., et al. (2013) Biomass Burning in Eastern Europe during Spring 2006 Caused High Deposition of Ammonium in Northern Fennoscandia. Environmental Pollution, 176, 71-79.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2012.12.006
[55]  Kramm, G. and Dlugi, R. (1994) Modelling of the Vertical Fluxes of Nitric Acid, Ammonia, and Ammonium Nitrate in the Atmospheric Surface Layer. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 18, 319-357.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00712450
[56]  Tetzlaff, G., Dlugi, R., Friedrich, K., Gross, G., Hinneburg, D., Pahl, U., et al. (2002) On Modeling Dry Deposition of Long-Lived and Chemically Reactive Species over Heterogeneous Terrain. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 42, 123-155.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015740203204
[57]  Dibb, J.E., Arsenault, M., Peterson, M.C. and Honrath, R.E. (2002) Fast Nitrogen Oxide Photochemistry in Summit, Greenland Snow. Atmospheric Environment, 36, 2501-2511.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(02)00130-9
[58]  Mölders, N., Luijting, H. and Sassen, K. (2008) Use of Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program Data from Barrow, Alaska, for Evaluation and Development of Snow Albedo Parameterizations. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 99, 199-219.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00703-007-0271-6
[59]  Junkermann, W. (1994) Measurements of the J(O1d) Actinic Flux within and above Stratiform Clouds and above Snow Surfaces. Geophysical Research Letters, 21, 793-796.
https://doi.org/10.1029/93GL03498
[60]  Weilenmann, M., Favez, J.-Y. and Alvarez, R. (2009) Cold-Start Emissions of Modern Passenger Cars at Different Low Ambient Temperatures and Their Evolution over Vehicle Legislation Categories. Atmospheric Environment, 43, 2419-2429.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.02.005
[61]  Zhan, J., Gao, Y., Li, W., Chen, L., Lin, H. and Lin, Q. (2014) Effects of Ship Emissions on Summertime Aerosols at Ny-Alesund in the Arctic. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 5, 500-510.
https://doi.org/10.5094/APR.2014.059
[62]  Ebel, A., Hass, H., Jakobs, H.J., Laube, M., Memmesheimer, M., Oberreuter, A., et al. (1991) Simulation of Ozone Intrusion Caused by a Tropopause Fold and Cut-Off Low. Atmospheric Environment. Part A. General Topics, 25, 2131-2144.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0960-1686(91)90089-P
[63]  Madronich, S. (1987) Photodissociation in the Atmosphere, 1, Actinic Flux and the Effects of Ground Reflections and Clouds. Journal Geophysical Research, 92, 9740-9752.
https://doi.org/10.1029/JD092iD08p09740
[64]  Thompson, C. (2017) Interactions of Bromine, Chlorine, and Iodine Photochemistry during Ozone Depletions in Barrow, Alaska. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 1680, 7324.
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-9651-2015
[65]  Kramm, G., Beheng, K.-D. and Müller, H. (1992) Vertical Transport of Polydispersed Aerosol Particles in the Atmospheric Surface Layer. In: Schwartz, S.E. and Slinn, W.G.N., Eds., Precipitation Scavenging and Atmosphere-Surface Exchange Processes, Volume 2, The Semonin Volume: Atmosphere-Surface Exchange Processes, Hemisphere Publication, Washington/Philadelphia/London, 1125-1141.
[66]  Roiger, A., Thomas, J.L., Schlager, H., Law, K.S., Kim, J., Schäfler, A., et al. (2014) Quantifying Emerging Local Anthropogenic Emissions in the Arctic Region: The Access Aircraft Campaign Experiment. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 96, 441-460.
https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-13-00169.1
[67]  Elsilä, A. (2006) Air Quality in Tampere. University of Finland, Helsinki, 16.
http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:bib:me:W00097575700
[68]  Berglen, T.F., Andresen, E., Arnesen, K., Nilsson, L.O., Ofstad, T., Rode, A., et al. (2012) Statlig Program for Forurensningsovervåking: Grenseområdene Norge-Russland. NILU-Norsk institutt for luftforskning, Kjeller, Norway, 107.

Full-Text

Contact Us

service@oalib.com

QQ:3279437679

WhatsApp +8615387084133