In the last two decades, laparoscopy has revolutionized the field of surgery. Many procedures previously performed with an open access are now routinely carried out with the laparoscopic approach. Several advantages are associated with laparoscopic surgery compared to open procedures: reduced pain due to smaller incisions and hemorrhaging, shorter hospital length of stay, and a lower incidence of wound infections. Liver transplantation (LT) brought a radical change in life expectancy of patients with hepatic end-stage disease. Today, LT represents the standard of care for more than fifty hepatic pathologies, with excellent results in terms of survival. Surely, with laparoscopy and LT being one of the most continuously evolving challenges in medicine, their recent combination has represented an astonishing scientific progress. The intent of the present paper is to underline the current role of diagnostic and therapeutic laparoscopy in patients waiting for LT, in the living donor LT and in LT recipients. 1. Introduction In the last decades, laparoscopy has revolutionized the field of surgery. Video laparoscopy was officially born in 1987, when Professor Phillipe Mouret performed the first cholecystectomy in Lyons, France [1]. Many procedures previously performed with the open technique are now carried out with the laparoscopic approach. Several advantages are associated with laparoscopic surgery compared to open procedures: reduced pain due to smaller incisions and haemorrhaging, shorter hospital length of stay, and a lower incidence of wound infections are all arguments that gave strength to the widespread of laparoscopy. Similarly, liver transplantation (LT) has radically changed the care for many patients with hepatic end-stage diseases. The first human LT was performed in 1963 by Professor Thomas Starzl [2] in Denver, United States: however, due to its initial poor results, LT remained an experimental therapy for several years. Only introduction of cyclosporine [3] markedly improved patient outcomes, turning LT to a standard clinical treatment for more than fifty adult and paediatric liver pathologies and, at the same time, allowing to achieve excellent results in terms of survival. The intent of the present paper is to underline the current role of diagnostic and therapeutic laparoscopy in patients waiting for LT, in the living donor LT and in LT recipients. 2. Pretransplant Surgery 2.1. Laparoscopic Liver Resection The first nonanatomical laparoscopic hepatectomy was performed by Gagner in 1992 [4] and the first anatomical one by Azagra in 1996 [5].
References
[1]
A. Cuschieri, F. Dubois, J. Mouiel et al., “The European experience with laparoscopic cholecystectomy,” American Journal of Surgery, vol. 161, no. 3, pp. 385–387, 1991.
[2]
T. E. Starzl, T. L. Marchioro, K. N. Vonkaulla, G. Hermann, R. S. Brittain, and W. R. Waddell, “Homotransplantation of the liver in humans,” Surgery, Gynecology & Obstetrics, vol. 117, pp. 659–676, 1963.
[3]
R. Y. Calne, S. Thiru, and D. J. G. White, “Cyclosporin A in patients receiving renal allografts from cadaver donors,” The Lancet, vol. 2, no. 8104, pp. 1323–1327, 1978.
[4]
M. Gagner, M. Rheault, and J. Dubuc, “Laparoscopic partial hepatectomy for liver tumor,” Surgical Endoscopy, vol. 6, article 99, 1992.
[5]
J. S. Azagra, M. Goergen, E. Gilbart, and D. Jacobs, “Laparoscopic anatomical (hepatic) left lateral segmentectomy—technical aspects,” Surgical Endoscopy, vol. 10, no. 7, pp. 758–761, 1996.
[6]
T. Mala, B. Edwin, A. R. Rosseland, I. Gladhaug, E. Fosse, and ？. Mathisen, “Laparoscopic liver resection: experience of 53 procedures at a single center,” Journal of Hepato-Biliary-Pancreatic Surgery, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 298–303, 2005.
[7]
B. Descottes, F. Lachachi, M. Sodji et al., “Early experience with laparoscopic approach for solid liver tumors: initial 16 cases,” Annals of Surgery, vol. 232, no. 5, pp. 641–645, 2000.
[8]
D. Cherqui, A. Laurent, C. Tayar et al., “Laparoscopic liver resection for peripheral hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with chronic liver disease: midterm results and perspectives,” Annals of Surgery, vol. 243, no. 4, pp. 499–506, 2006.
[9]
L. Biertho, A. Waage, and M. Gagner, “Laparoscopic hepatectomies,” Annales de Chirurgie, vol. 127, no. 3, pp. 164–170, 2002.
[10]
I. Dagher, J. M. Proske, A. Carloni, H. Richa, H. Tranchart, and D. Franco, “Laparoscopic liver resection: results for 70 patients,” Surgical Endoscopy and Other Interventional Techniques, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 619–624, 2007.
[11]
C. Simillis, V. A. Constantinides, P. P. Tekkis et al., “Laparoscopic versus open hepatic resections for benign and malignant neoplasms-a meta-analysis,” Surgery, vol. 141, no. 2, pp. 203–211, 2007.
[12]
K. Ito, H. Ito, C. Are et al., “Laparoscopic versus open liver resection: a matched-pair case control study,” Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery, vol. 13, no. 12, pp. 2276–2283, 2009.
[13]
X. J. Cai, J. Yang, H. Yu et al., “Clinical study of laparoscopic versus open hepatectomy for malignant liver tumors,” Surgical Endoscopy and Other Interventional Techniques, vol. 22, no. 11, pp. 2350–2356, 2008.
[14]
Y. Endo, M. Ohta, A. Sasaki et al., “A comparative study of the long-term outcomes after laparoscopy-assisted and open left lateral hepatectomy for hepatocellular carcinoma,” Surgical Laparoscopy, Endoscopy and Percutaneous Techniques, vol. 19, no. 5, pp. e171–e174, 2009.
[15]
B. Topal, S. Fieuws, R. Aerts, H. Vandeweyer, and F. Penninckx, “Laparoscopic versus open liver resection of hepatic neoplasms: comparative analysis of short-term results,” Surgical Endoscopy and Other Interventional Techniques, vol. 22, no. 10, pp. 2208–2213, 2008.
[16]
I. Dagher, G. Di Giuro, J. Dubrez, P. Lainas, C. Smadja, and D. Franco, “Laparoscopic versus open right hepatectomy: a comparative study,” American Journal of Surgery, vol. 198, no. 2, pp. 173–177, 2009.
[17]
H. H. Kim, E. K. Park, J. S. Seoung et al., “Liver resection for hepatocellular carcinoma: case-matched analysis of laparoscopic versus open resection,” Journal of the Korean Surgical Society, vol. 80, no. 6, pp. 412–419, 2011.
[18]
R. I. Troisi, J. Van Huysse, F. Berrevoet et al., “Evolution of laparoscopic left lateral sectionectomy without the Pringle maneuver: through resection of benign and malignant tumors to living liver donation,” Surgical Endoscopy and Other Interventional Techniques, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 79–87, 2011.
[19]
J. F. Buell, D. Cherqui, D. A. Geller, et al., “The international position on laparoscopic liver surgery: the Louisville Statement, 2008,” Annals of Surgery, vol. 250, pp. 825–830, 2009.
[20]
R. Adam and D. Azoulay, “Is primary resection and salvage transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma a reasonable strategy?” Annals of Surgery, vol. 241, no. 4, pp. 671–672, 2005.
[21]
V. Mazzaferro, S. Todo, A. G. Tzakis, A. C. Stieber, L. Makowka, and T. E. Starzl, “Liver transplantation in patients with previous portasystemic shunt,” American Journal of Surgery, vol. 160, no. 1, pp. 111–116, 1990.
[22]
A. Steib, G. Freys, C. Lehmann, C. Meyer, and G. Mahoudeau, “Intraoperative blood losses and transfusion requirements during adult liver transplantation remain difficult to predict,” Canadian Journal of Anesthesia, vol. 48, no. 11, pp. 1075–1079, 2001.
[23]
A. Laurent, C. Tayar, M. Andréoletti, J. Y. Lauzet, J. C. Merle, and D. Cherqui, “Laparoscopic liver resection facilitates salvage liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma,” Journal of Hepato-Biliary-Pancreatic Surgery, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 310–314, 2009.
[24]
E. C. H. Lai, C. N. Tang, J. P. Y. Ha, and M. K. W. Li, “Laparoscopic liver resection for hepatocellular carcinoma ten-year experience in a single center,” Archives of Surgery, vol. 144, no. 2, pp. 143–148, 2009.
[25]
I. Dagher, P. Lainas, A. Carloni et al., “Laparoscopic liver resection for hepatocellular carcinoma,” Surgical Endoscopy and Other Interventional Techniques, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 372–378, 2008.
[26]
L. Aldrighetti, E. Guzzetti, C. Pulitanò et al., “Case-matched analysis of totally laparoscopic versus open liver resection for HCC: short and middle term results,” Journal of Surgical Oncology, vol. 102, no. 1, pp. 82–86, 2010.
[27]
H. Tranchart, G. Di Giuro, P. Lainas et al., “Laparoscopic resection for hepatocellular carcinoma: a matched-pair comparative study,” Surgical Endoscopy and Other Interventional Techniques, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 1170–1176, 2010.
[28]
G. Belli, P. Limongelli, C. Fantini et al., “Laparoscopic and open treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with cirrhosis,” British Journal of Surgery, vol. 96, no. 9, pp. 1041–1048, 2009.
[29]
B. S. Hu, K. Chen, H. M. Tan, et al., “Comparison of laparoscopic vs open liver lobectomy (segmentectomy) for hepatocellular carcinoma,” World Journal of Gastroenterology, vol. 17, pp. 4725–4728, 2011.
[30]
F. Panaro, T. Piardi, M. Cag, et al., “Robotic liver resection as a bridge to liver transplantation,” Journal of the Society of Laparoendoscopic Surgeons, vol. 15, pp. 86–89, 2011.
[31]
E. C. H. Lai, C. N. Tang, G. P. C. Yang, and M. K. W. Li, “Multimodality laparoscopic liver resection for hepatic malignancy—from conventional total laparoscopic approach to robot-assisted laparoscopic approach,” International Journal of Surgery, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 324–328, 2011.
[32]
S. B. Choi, J. S. Park, J. K. Kim et al., “Early experiences of robotic-assisted laparoscopic liver resection,” Yonsei Medical Journal, vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 632–638, 2008.
[33]
Y. Asahina, H. Nakanishi, and N. Izumi, “Laparoscopic radiofrequency ablation for hepatocellular carcinoma: review,” Digestive Endoscopy, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 67–72, 2009.
[34]
A. Siperstein, A. Garland, K. Engle et al., “Laparoscopic radiofrequency ablation of primary and metastatic liver tumors: technical considerations,” Surgical Endoscopy, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 400–405, 2000.
[35]
F. Panaro, T. Piardi, M. Audet et al., “Laparoscopic ultrasound-guided radiofrequency ablation as a bridge to liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma: preliminary results,” Transplantation Proceedings, vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 1179–1181, 2010.
[36]
V. R. Tandan, M. Asch, M. Margolis, A. Page, and S. Gallinger, “Laparoscopic vs. open intraoperative ultrasound examination of the liver: a controlled study,” Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 146–151, 1997.
[37]
M. Montorsi, R. Santambrogio, P. Bianchi et al., “Laparoscopy with laparoscopic ultrasound for pretreatment staging of hepatocellular carcinoma: a prospective study,” Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 312–315, 2001.
[38]
N. Kokudo, Y. Bandai, H. Imanishi et al., “Management of new hepatic nodules detected by intraoperative ultrasonography during hepatic resection for hepatocellular carcinoma,” Surgery, vol. 119, no. 6, pp. 634–640, 1996.
[39]
Y. Takigawa, Y. Sugawara, J. Yamamoto et al., “New lesions detected by intraoperative ultrasound during liver resection for hepatocellular carcinoma,” Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 151–156, 2001.
[40]
G. Torzilli and M. Makuuchi, “Intraoperative ultrasonography in liver cancer,” Surgical Oncology Clinics of North America, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 91–103, 2003.
[41]
H. Cerwenka, J. Raith, H. Bacher et al., “Is intraoperative ultrasonography during partial hepatectomy still necessary in the age of magnetic resonance imaging?” Hepato-Gastroenterology, vol. 50, no. 53, pp. 1539–1541, 2003.
[42]
K. Zhang, N. Kokudo, K. Hasegawa et al., “Detection of new tumors by intraoperative ultrasonography during repeated hepatic resections for hepatocellular carcinoma,” Archives of Surgery, vol. 142, no. 12, pp. 1170–1176, 2007.
[43]
R. Santambrogio, E. Opocher, M. Zuin et al., “Surgical resection versus laparoscopic radiofrequency ablation in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma and child-pugh class a liver cirrhosis,” Annals of Surgical Oncology, vol. 16, no. 12, pp. 3289–3298, 2009.
[44]
K. K. Tanabe, S. A. Curley, G. D. Dodd, A. E. Siperstein, and S. N. Goldberg, “Radiofrequency ablation: the experts weigh in,” Cancer, vol. 100, no. 3, pp. 641–650, 2004.
[45]
T. Livraghi, L. Solbiati, M. F. Meloni, G. S. Gazelle, E. F. Halpern, and S. N. Goldberg, “Treatment of focal liver tumors with percutaneous radio-frequency ablation: complications encountered in a multicenter study,” Radiology, vol. 226, no. 2, pp. 441–451, 2003.
[46]
A. Casaril, M. Abu Hilal, A. Harb, T. Campagnaro, G. Mansueto, and N. Nicoli, “The safety of radiofrequency thermal ablation in the treatment of liver malignancies,” European Journal of Surgical Oncology, vol. 34, no. 6, pp. 668–672, 2008.
[47]
K. C. Yun, H. Rhim, S. A. Yong, Y. K. Mi, and K. L. Hyo, “Percutaneous radiofrequency ablation therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma using multitined expandable electrodes: comparison of subcapsular and nonsubcapsular tumors,” American Journal of Roentgenology, vol. 186, supplement 5, pp. S269–S274, 2006.
[48]
E. Esteves, E. C. Neto, M. O. Neto, J. Devanir, and R. E. Pereira, “Laparoscopic Kasai portoenterostomy for biliary atresia,” Pediatric Surgery International, vol. 18, no. 8, pp. 737–740, 2002.
[49]
M. Martinez-Ferro, E. Esteves, and P. Laje, “Laparoscopic treatment of biliary atresia and choledochal cyst,” Seminars in Pediatric Surgery, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 206–215, 2005.
[50]
B. M. Ure, J. F. Kuebler, N. Schukfeh, C. Engelmann, J. Dingemann, and C. Petersen, “Survival with the native liver after laparoscopic versus conventional kasai portoenterostomy in infants with biliary atresia: a prospective trial,” Annals of Surgery, vol. 253, no. 4, pp. 826–830, 2011.
[51]
K. W. E. Chan, K. H. Lee, J. W. C. Mou, S. T. G. Cheung, and Y. H. P. Tam, “The outcome of laparoscopic portoenterostomy for biliary atresia in children,” Pediatric Surgery International, vol. 27, no. 7, pp. 671–674, 2011.
[52]
J. L. Flowers, S. Jacobs, E. Cho et al., “Comparison of open and laparoscopic live donor nephrectomy,” Annals of Surgery, vol. 226, no. 4, pp. 483–490, 1997.
[53]
L. E. Ratner, L. R. Kavoussi, M. Sroka et al., “Laparoscopic assisted live donor nephrectomy—a comparison with the open approach,” Transplantation, vol. 63, no. 2, pp. 229–233, 1997.
[54]
L. E. Ratner, J. Hiller, M. Sroka et al., “Laparoscopic live donor nephrectomy removes disincentives to live donation,” Transplantation Proceedings, vol. 29, no. 8, pp. 3402–3403, 1997.
[55]
P. Intaraprasong, A. Sobhonslidsuk, and S. Tongprasert, “Donor outcomes after Living Donor Liver Transplantation (LDLT),” Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand, vol. 93, no. 11, pp. 1340–1343, 2010.
[56]
D. Cherqui, O. Soubrane, E. Husson et al., “Laparoscopic living donor hepatectomy for liver transplantation in children,” The Lancet, vol. 359, no. 9304, pp. 392–396, 2002.
[57]
E. Lin, R. Gonzalez, K. R. Venkatesh et al., “Can current technology be integrated to facilitate laparoscopic living donor hepatectomy?” Surgical Endoscopy and Other Interventional Techniques, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 750–753, 2003.
[58]
O. Soubrane, D. Cherqui, O. Scatton et al., “Laparoscopic left lateral sectionectomy in living donors: safety and reproducibility of the technique in a single center,” Annals of Surgery, vol. 244, no. 5, pp. 815–820, 2006.
[59]
R. Troisi, R. Debruyne, and X. Rogiers, “Laparoscopic living donor hepatectomy for pediatric liver transplantation,” Acta Chirurgica Belgica, vol. 109, no. 4, pp. 559–562, 2009.
[60]
J. C. U. Coelho, A. C. T. de Freitas, and J. E. F. Mathias, “Laparoscopic resection of the left lateral segment of the liver in living donor liver transplantation,” Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes, vol. 36, no. 6, pp. 537–538, 2009.
[61]
K. H. Kim, D. H. Jung, K. M. Park, et al., “Comparison of open and laparoscopic live donor left lateral sectionectomy,” British Journal of Surgery, vol. 98, pp. 1302–1308, 2011.
[62]
A. Thenappan, R. C. Jha, T. Fishbein et al., “Liver allograft outcomes after laparoscopic-assisted and minimal access live donor hepatectomy for transplantation,” American Journal of Surgery, vol. 201, no. 4, pp. 450–455, 2011.
[63]
A. J. Koffron, R. Kung, T. Baker, J. Fryer, L. Clark, and M. Abecassis, “Laparoscopic-assisted right lobe donor hepatectomy,” American Journal of Transplantation, vol. 6, no. 10, pp. 2522–2525, 2006.
[64]
I. Kurosaki, S. Yamamoto, C. Kitami et al., “Video-assisted living donor hemihepatectomy through a 12-cm incision for adult-to-adult liver transplantation,” Surgery, vol. 139, no. 5, pp. 695–703, 2006.
[65]
K. S. Suh, N. J. Yi, J. Kim et al., “Laparoscopic hepatectomy for a modified right graft in adult-to-adult living donor liver transplantation,” Transplantation Proceedings, vol. 40, no. 10, pp. 3529–3531, 2008.
[66]
K. S. Suh, N. J. Yi, T. Kim et al., “Laparoscopy-assisted donor right hepatectomy using a hand port system preserving the middle hepatic vein branches,” World Journal of Surgery, vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 526–533, 2009.
[67]
T. B. Baker, C. L. Jay, D. P. Ladner et al., “Laparoscopy-assisted and open living donor right hepatectomy: a comparative study of outcomes,” Surgery, vol. 146, no. 4, pp. 817–825, 2009.
[68]
H. J. Choi, Y. K. You, G. H. Na, et al., “Single-port laparoscopy-assisted donor right hepatectomy in living donor liver transplantation: sensible approach or unnecessary hindrance?” Transplantation Proceedings, vol. 44, pp. 347–352, 2012.
[69]
S. Eguchi, M. Takatsuki, A. Soyama, et al., “Elective living donor liver transplantation by hybrid hand-assisted laparoscopic surgery and short upper midline laparotomy,” Surgery, vol. 150, pp. 1002–1005, 2011.
[70]
A. Kurmann, G. Beldi, S. A. Vorburger, C. A. Seiler, and D. Candinas, “Laparoscopic incisional hernia repair is feasible and safe after liver transplantation,” Surgical Endoscopy and Other Interventional Techniques, vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 1451–1455, 2010.
[71]
T. Piardi, M. Audet, F. Panaro et al., “Incisional hernia repair after liver transplantation: role of the mesh,” Transplantation Proceedings, vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 1244–1247, 2010.
[72]
B. T. Heniford, A. Park, B. J. Ramshaw, G. Voeller, J. G. Hunter, and R. J. Fitzgibbons, “Laparoscopic repair of ventral hernias: nine years' experience with 850 consecutive hernias,” Annals of Surgery, vol. 238, no. 3, pp. 391–400, 2003.
[73]
K. Mekeel, D. Mulligan, K. S. Reddy, A. Moss, and K. Harold, “Laparoscopic incisional hernia repair after liver transplantation,” Liver Transplantation, vol. 13, no. 11, pp. 1576–1581, 2007.
[74]
K. A. Andreoni, H. Lightfoot, D. A. Gerber, M. W. Johnson, and J. H. Fair, “Laparoscopic incisional hernia repair in liver transplant and other immunosuppressed patients,” American Journal of Transplantation, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 349–354, 2002.
[75]
K. Harold, K. Mekeel, J. Spitler et al., “Outcomes analysis of laparoscopic ventral hernia repair in transplant patients,” Surgical Endoscopy and Other Interventional Techniques, vol. 23, no. 8, pp. 1835–1838, 2009.
[76]
H. Scheuerlein, F. Rauchfuss, A. Gharbi, M. Heise, and U. Settmacher, “Laparoscopic incisional hernia repair after solid-organ transplantation,” Transplantation Proceedings, vol. 43, no. 5, pp. 1783–1789, 2011.
[77]
R. Gianchandani, E. Moneva, P. Marrero et al., “Feasibility and effectiveness of laparoscopic incisional hernia repair after liver transplantation,” Transplantation Proceedings, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 742–744, 2011.
[78]
R. Merenda, G. E. Gerunda, D. Neri et al., “Laparoscopic surgery after orthotopic liver transplantation,” Liver Transplantation, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 104–107, 2000.
[79]
I. S. Gill, A. M. Meraney, J. T. Mayes, and E. L. Bravo, “Laparoscopic right adrenalectomy after liver transplantation,” Transplantation, vol. 71, no. 9, pp. 1350–1351, 2001.
[80]
A. DeRoover and D. Sudan, “Treatment of multiple aneurysms of the splenic artery after liver transplantation by percutaneous embolization and laparoscopic splenectomy,” Transplantation, vol. 72, no. 5, pp. 956–958, 2001.
[81]
H. Uehara, H. Kawanaka, T. Akahoshi et al., “The feasibility and effectiveness of a hand-assisted laparoscopic splenectomy for hypersplenism in patients after living-donor liver transplantation,” Surgical Laparoscopy, Endoscopy and Percutaneous Techniques, vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 484–487, 2009.
[82]
R. Robles, P. Parrilla, J. A. Lujan, J. A. Torralba, P. Ramirez, and F. S. Bueno, “Laparoscopic treatment of biliary peritonitis after T tube removal in patients undergoing orthotopic liver transplantation,” British Journal of Surgery, vol. 84, no. 9, p. 1244, 1997.
[83]
H. B. Zhu, Y. Jin, S. T. Xu, Y. X. Xia, and L. P. Xie, “Total laparoscopic hysterectomy after liver transplantation,” Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Diseases International, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 438–440, 2010.
[84]
M. S. Lee, E. Y. Kim, J. H. Lee et al., “Laparoscopy-assisted distal gastrectomy for gastric cancer after liver transplantation,” Journal of the Korean Surgical Society, vol. 80, supplement 1, pp. S1–S5, 2011.
[85]
M. L. Metzelder, T. Schober, L. Grigull, et al., “The role of laparoscopic techniques in children with suspected post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorders.,” Journal of Laparoendoscopic & Advanced Surgical Techniques, vol. 21, pp. 767–770, 2011.
