Campbell E M, Saunders S C, Coates K D, et al. Ecological resilience and complexity: A theoretical framework for understanding and managing British Columbia’s forest ecosystems in a changing climate. British Columbia, Ministry of Forests and Range, Forest Science Program Technical Report 055. Victoria, British Columbia, 2009.
[3]
Fischer J, Peterson G D, Gardner T A, et al. Integrating resilience thinking and optimisation for conservation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 2009, 24(10): 549-554.
[4]
Chapin F S, Kofinas G P, Folke C, et al. Resilience-Based stewardship: Strategies for navigating sustainable pathways in a changing world. Principles of Ecosystem Stewardship, 2009: 319-337.
[5]
Millar C I, Stephenson N L, Stephens S L. Climate change and forests of the future: Managing in the face of uncertainty. Ecological Applications, 2007, 17(8): 2145-2151.
Carpenter S R, Leavitt P R. Temporal variation in a paleolimnological record arising from a trophic cascade. Ecology, 1991, 72(1): 277-285.
[8]
Levin S A. The problem of pattern and scale in ecology: The Robert H. MacArthur award lecture. Ecology, 1992, 73(6): 1943-1967.
[9]
Bennett E M, Cumming G S, Peterson G D. A systems model approach to determining resilience surrogates for case studies. Ecosystems, 2005, 8(8): 945-957.
[10]
Cumming G, Barnes G, Perz S, et al. An exploratory framework for the empirical measurement of resilience. Ecosystems, 2005, 8(8): 975-987.
[11]
Brand F. Critical natural capital revisited: Ecological resilience and sustainable development. Ecological Economics, 2009, 68(3): 605-612.
[12]
Adger W N, Hughes T P, Folke C, et al. Social-ecological resilience to coastal disasters. Science, 2005, 309(5737): 1036-1039.
[13]
Gunderson L, Holling C. Panarchy Synopsis: Understanding Transformations in Human and Natural Systems. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2002.
[14]
Gunderson L H. Ecological resilience-in theory and application. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 2000, 31: 425-439.
[15]
Kerr L, Cadrin S, Secor D. The role of spatial dynamics in the stability, resilience, and productivity of an estuarine fish population. Ecological Applications, 2010, 20 (2): 497-507.
[16]
Walker B. Is Succession a Viable Concept in African Savanna Ecosystems? New York, USA: Springer-Verlag, 1981: 431-447.
[17]
Grimm V, Wissel C. Babel, or the ecological stability discussions: An inventory and analysis of terminology and a guide for avoiding confusion. Oecologia, 1997, 109(3): 323-334.
[18]
Carpenter S R, Walker Brian, J. Marty anderies, nick abel. from metaphor to measurement: Resilience of what to what?. Ecosystems, 2001, 4(8): 765-781.
[19]
Deangelis D. Dynamics of Nutrient Cycling and Food Webs. London: Kluwer Academic Pub, 1992.
[20]
Norris F, Stevens S, Pfefferbaum B, et al. Community resilience as a metaphor, theory, set of capacities, and strategy for disaster readiness. American Journal of Community Psychology, 2008, 41(1): 127-150.
[21]
Hughes T P, Graham N a J, Jackson J B C, et al. Rising to the challenge of sustaining coral reef resilience. Trends in Ecology &, Evolution, 2010, 25(11): 633-642.
[22]
Klein R J T, Marion J S, Goosen H, et al. Resilience and vulnerability: Coastal dynamics or Dutch dikes?. The Geographical Journal, 1998, 164(3): 259-268.
[23]
Drever C R, Peterson G, Messier C, et al. Can forest management based on natural disturbances maintain ecological resilience?. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 2006, 36(9): 2285-2299.
[24]
Berkes F, Folke C. Linking Social and Ecological Systems: Management Practices and Social Mechanisms for Building Resilience. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Folke C, Carpenter S, Walker B, et al. Regime shifts, resilience, and biodiversity in ecosystem management. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 2004, 35(1): 557-581.
[27]
Puettmann K J, Coates K D, Messier C C. A Critique of Silviculture: Managing for Complexity. Island Press, 2008.
[28]
Dobzhansky T. Adaptness and fitness//Lewontin R C. Population Biology and Evolution. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse Univ. Press, 1968: 109-121.
[29]
Norden N, Chazdon R L, Chao A, et al. Resilience of tropical rain forests: Tree community reassembly in secondary forests. Ecology Letters, 2009, 12(5): 385-394.
[30]
Holling C S. Engineering resilience versus ecological resilience// Schulze P. Engineering within ecological constraints, 1996: 31-43.
[31]
Macdougall A S, Turkington R. Are invasive species the drivers or passengers of change in degraded ecosystems?. Ecology, 2005, 86(1): 42-55.
[32]
Pautasso M, Holdenrieder O, Stenlid J. Susceptibility to Fungal Pathogens of Forests Differing in Tree Diversity. Forest Diversity and Function. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, 2005: 263-289.
[33]
Chapin F S, III, Walker B H, Hobbs R J, et al. Biotic control over the functioning of ecosystems. Science, 1997, 277(5325): 500-504.
[34]
Walker B. Conserving biological diversity through ecosystem resilience. Conservation Biology, 1995, 9(4): 747-752.
[35]
Ives A R, Carpenter S R. Stability and diversity of ecosystems. Science, 2007, 317(5834): 58-62.
[36]
Bengtsson J, Angelstam P, Elmqvist T, et al. Reserves, resilience and dynamic landscapes. Ambio, 2003, 32(6): 389-396.
[37]
Franklin J F, Macmahon J A. Messages from a Mountain. Science, 2000, 288(5469): 1183-1185.
[38]
Pickett S T A, Thompson J N. Patch dynamics and the design of nature reserves. Biological Conservation, 1978, 13 (1): 27-37.
[39]
Weiher E P K. Ecological Assembly Rules: Perspectives, Advances, Retreats. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
[40]
Handmer J W, Dovers S R. A typology of resilience: Rethinking institutions for sustainable development. Organization & Environment, 1996, 9(4): 482-511.
[41]
Gunderson L H, Walters C J. Resilience and the Behavior of Large-scale Systems. Washington, D.C: Island Press, 2002.
[42]
Loreau M A, Downing M, Emmerson A, et al. A New Look at the Relationship between Diversity and Stability. Oxford, UK, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
[43]
Ehrlen J, Eriksson O. Dispersal limitation and patch occupancy in forest herbs. Ecology, 2000, 81(6): 1667-1674.
[44]
Mumby P J, Hastings A. The impact of ecosystem connectivity on coral reef resilience. Journal of Applied Ecology, 2008, 45(3): 854-862.
[45]
Moral R, Wood D M. Early primary succession on the volcano Mount St. Helens. Journal of Vegetation Science, 1993, 4(2): 223-234.
[46]
Tongway L. The Nature of Landscape Dysfunction in Rangelands. Collingwood, Australia: CSIRO Publishing, 1997.
[47]
Owen L. Petchey K J G. Effects on ecosystem resilience of biodiversity, extinctions, and the structure of regional species pools. Theoretical Ecology, 2009, 2(3): 177-187.
Kueppers L M, Snyder M A, Sloan L C, et al. Seasonal temperature responses to land-use change in the western United States. Global and Planetary Change, 2008, 60 (3-4): 250-264.
[50]
IPCC. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
[51]
Spittlehouse D L. Integrating climate change adaptation into forest management. Forestry Chronicle, 2005, 81(5): 691-695.
[52]
Are S. Serengeti II: Dynamics. Management and Conservation of an Ecosystem. 1995: 665.
[53]
Hughes R M,Larsn D P. Ecoregions: An approach to surface water protection. Journal of the Water Pollution control Federation, 1988, 60(4): 486-493.
[54]
Sakai A K, Allendorf F W, Holt J S, et al. The population biology of invasive species. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 2001, 32(1): 305-332.
[55]
Warry N D, Hanau M. The use of terrestrial ecoregions as regional-scale screen for selecting representative reference sites for water quality monitoring. Environment Management, 1993, 17(2): 267-76.
[56]
Moore J C, De Ruiter P C, Hunt H W. Influence of productivity on the stability of real and model ecosystems. Science, 1993, 261(5123): 906-908.
[57]
Thompson I, Mackey B, McNulty S, et al. Forest Resilience, Biodiversity, and Climate Change. A synthesis of the biodiversity/resilience/stability relationship in forest ecosystems. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal. Technical Series no. 43, 2009.
Ludwig D, Hilborn R, Walters C. Uncertainty, resource exploitation, and conservation: Lessons from history. Science, 1993, 260(5104): 17-36.
[60]
Carpenter S R, Defries R, Dietz T, et al. Millennium ecosystem assessment: Research needs. Science, 2006, 314 (5797): 257-258.
[61]
Suding K N, Ashton I W, Bechtold H, et al. Plant and microbe contribution to community resilience in a directionally changing environment. Ecological Monographs, 2008, 78(3): 313-329.
[62]
Carpenter S, Cottingham K. Resilience and restoration of lakes. Conservation Ecology, 1997, 1(1): 2-3.
[63]
Walker D S, Salt D A. Resilience Thinking: Sustaining Ecosystems and People in a Changing World. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2006.
[64]
Scheffer M, Brock W, Westley F. Socioeconomic mechanisms preventing optimum use of ecosystem services: An interdisciplinary theoretical analysis. Ecosystems, 2000, 3 (5): 451-471.
[65]
Holling C S. Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 1973, 4: 1-23.
[66]
Pimm S L. The complexity and stability of ecosystems. Nature, 1984, 307(5949): 321-326.
[67]
Folke C, Carpenter S R, Walker B, et al. Resilience thinking: integrating resilience, adaptability and transformability. Ecology and Society, 2010, 15(4): 20.
Walker B, Holling C S, Carpenter S R, et al. Resilience, adaptability and transformability in social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society, 2004, 9(2): 5.
[70]
Campbell E M, Antos J A. Postfire succession in Pinus albicaulis ¨CAbies lasiocarpa forests of southern British Columbia. Botany, 2003, 81(4): 383-397.
[71]
Peterson G D. Contagious disturbance, ecological memory, and the emergence of landscape pattern. Ecosystems, 2002, 5(4): 329-338.
[72]
Scheffer M, Carpenter S, Foley J A, et al. Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature, 2001, 413(6856): 591-596.
[73]
Peterson G. Contagious disturbance, ecological memory, and the emergence of landscape pattern. Ecosystems, 2002, 5(4): 329-338.
[74]
Rapport D J, Costanza R, Mcmichael A J. Assessing ecosystem health. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 1998, 13 (10): 397-402.
Ludwig D B. Walker, Holling C S. Sustainability, stability, and resilience. Conservation Ecology, 1997, 1(1): 27.
[77]
Mitchell R J, Auld M H D, Le Duc M G, et al. Ecosystem stability and resilience: a review of their relevance for the conservation management of lowland heaths. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 2000, 3(2): 142-160.
[78]
Schr?der A, Persson L, De Roos AM Direct experimental evidence for alternative stable states: A review. Oikos, 2005, 110(1): 3-19.
[79]
Schmitz O J. Combining field experiments and individual based modeling to identify the dynamically relevant organizational scale in a field system. Oikos, 2000, 89(3): 471-484.
[80]
Gunderson L H, Walters C J. Resilience in wet landscapes of Southern Florida//Gunderson L H, Pritchard L. Resilience and the Behavior of Large-scale Systems. Washington, D C: Island Press, 2002.
[81]
Nystr?m M. Redundancy and response diversity of functional groups: Implications for the resilience of coral reefs. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 2006, 35(1): 30-35.
[82]
Whitford W G, Rapport D J, Desoyza A G. Using resistance and resilience measurements for 'fitness' tests in ecosystem health. Journal of Environmental Management, 1999, 57(1): 21-29.
[83]
Slocum M G, Mendelssohn I A. Use of experimental disturbances to assess resilience along a known stress gradient. Ecological Indicators, 2008, 8(3): 181-190.
[84]
Gibbs, Mark T. Resilience: What is it and what does it mean for marine policymakers?. Marine Policy, 2009, 33 (2): 322-331.
[85]
GLFC. Testing new methods for assessing forest resilience and sustainability in the boreal forest. GLFC e-Bulletin Issue 10, Summer 2010.
[86]
Tilman G D. Plant Dominance Along an Experimental Nutrient Gradient. Ecology, 1984, 65(5): 1445-1453.
[87]
Stone L, Gabric A, Berman T. Ecosystem sesilience, stability, and productivity: Seeking a relationship. The American Naturalist, 1996, 148(5): 892-903.
[88]
Lep? J, Osbornová-Kosinová J, Rejmánek M. Community stability, complexity and species life history strategies. Plant Ecology, 1982, 50(1): 53-63.
[89]
Peterson G, Allen C R, Holling C S. Ecological resilience, biodiversity, and scale. Ecosystems, 1998, 1(1): 6-18.
[90]
Elmqvist T, Folke C, Nystr?m M, et al. Response diversity, ecosystem change, and resilience. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 2003, 1(9): 488-494.
[91]
Hooper D U. Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: A consensus of current knowledge. Ecol. Monogr., 2005, 75(1): 3-35.
[92]
Scheffer M, Carpenter S R. Catastrophic regime shifts in ecosystems: linking theory to observation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 2003, 18(12): 648-656.
[93]
Walker B, Langridge J, Mcfarlane F. Resilience of an Australian savanna grassland to selective and non-selective perturbations. Australian Journal of Ecology, 1997, 22 (2): 125-135.
[94]
Strickland Munro J K, Allison H E, Moore S A. Using resilience concepts to investigate the impacts of protected area tourism on communities. Annals of Tourism Research, 2010, 37(2): 499-519.
[95]
Gerwing J J. Degradation of forests through logging and fire in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. Forest Ecology and Management, 2002, 157(1-3): 131-141.
[96]
Sakai A K, Allendorf F W, Holt J S, et al. The population biology of invasive species. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 2001, 32(1): 305-332.
[97]
Moore J C, De Ruiter P C, Hunt H W. Influence of productivity on the stability of real and model ecosystems. Science, 1993, 261(5123): 906-908.
Strickland Munro J K, Allison H E, Moore S A. Using resilience concepts to investigate the impacts of protected area tourism on communities. Annals of Tourism Research, 2010, 37(2): 499-519.
[100]
Omernik J M. Ecoregions of the conterminous United States (Map Supplement). Annals of Associations of American Geographers, 1987, 77(1): 118-125.
[101]
Omernik J M,Gallant A L. Defining regions for evaluating envimnmental resources//Proceedings of the Global Natural Resource Monitoring and Assessment Symposium,Preparing for 2lst Century. VeIlice, Italy, 199l: 936-947.
[102]
Gerwing J J. Degradation of forests through logging and fire in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. Forest Ecology and Management, 2002, 157(1-3): 131-141.