Baskin C C, Baskin J M. Seeds, Ecology, Biogeography, and Evolution of Dormancy and Germination[M]. New York: Academic Press, 1998.
[2]
Gold W G, Bliss L C. Water limitations and plant community development in a polar desert[J].Ecology,1995, 76: 1 558-1 568.[108] Tielborger K. The vegetation of linear desert dunes in the north-western Negev, Israel[J].Flora,1997, 192: 261-278.
[3]
Steinberger Y. Energy and protein budgets of the desert isopod Hemilepistrus reaumuri[J].Acta Oecologia,1989, 10:117-134.[110] Darby B J, Neher D A, Belnap J. Soil nematode communities are ecologically more mature beneath late-than early-successional stage biological soil crusts[J]. Applied Soil Ecology,2006, 35: 203-212.
[4]
Loria M, Hernstadt J. Moss capsules as food of the harvester ant. Messor[J].Bryologist,1980, 83: 524-525.
[5]
Li X R, Chen Y W, Su Y G, et al. Effects of biological soil crust on desert insect diversity: Evidence from the Tengger desert of northern China[J].Arid Land Research and Management,2006,20:1-18.
[6]
Li Xinrong, Chen Yingwu, Jia Rongliang. Biological soil crusts: A significant food source for insects in the arid desert ecosystems[J].Journal of Desert Research,2008, 28: 245-248.[李新荣, 陈应武, 贾荣亮. 生物土壤结皮: 荒漠昆虫多样性的重要食物链组成[J]. 中国沙漠,2008, 28: 245-248.]
[7]
Reynaud P A, Lumpkin T A. Microalgae of Lanzhou (China) cryptogamic crust[J].Arid. Soil Research and Rehabilitation,1988, 2: 145-155.
[8]
Hong Y, Li Y Y, Li Sh H. Preliminary study on the blue-green algae community of arid soil in Qaidam basin[J].Acta Botanica Sinica,1992, 34 : 161-168.
[9]
Zhou Zh G, Cheng Z J, Liu Zh L. Study on the ecology of algae in surface crusts of desert[J].Acta Ecologica Sinica,1995, 15: 385-391.
[10]
Zhang Y M, Cao T, Pan B R. A study on bryophyte associated with formation of soil crust in south fringe of Gurbantunggut desert in Xinjiang[J].Acta Botanica Boreali Occidentalia Sinica,2002, 22: 18-23.
[11]
Zhang Y M, Wang H L, Wang X Q, et al. The microstructure of microbiotic crust and its influence on wind erosion for a sandy soil surface in the Gurbantunggut desert of Northwestern China[J].Geoderma,2006, 132: 441-449.
[12]
Bai X L, Wang Y, Xu Jie, et al. Characteristics of reproduction and growth of mosses in the soil crust of fixed dunes in Shapotou area[J].Journal of Desert Research,2003, 23: 171-173.
[13]
Belnap J, Eldridge D. Disturbance and recovery of biological soil crusts[C]//Belnap J, Lange O L, eds. Biological Soil Crusts: Structure, Function and Management. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2003:363-383.
[14]
Lalley J S, Viles H A. Do vehicle track disturbances affect the productivity of soil-growing lichens in a fog desert?[J]. Functional Ecology,2006, 20: 548-556.
[15]
Whitford W. Ecology of Desert Systems[M]. San Diego: Academic Press, 2002.
[16]
Li X R, Wang X P, Li T, et al. Microbiotic soil crust and its effect on vegetation and habitat on artificially stabilized desert dunes in Tengger desert, North China[J]. Biology and Fertility of Soils,2002, 35: 147-154.
[17]
Metting B. Biological surface features of semiarid lands and deserts[C]//Skujins J, eds. Semiarid Lands and Deserts: Soil Resource and Reclamation. New York: MarcelDekker, 1991:275-293.
[18]
Grondin A E, Johansen J R. Seasonal succession in a soil algal community associated with a beech-maple forest in northeastern Ohio, USA[J]. Nova Hedwigia,1995, 60: 1-12.
[19]
Belnap J. The potential roles of biological soil crusts in dryland hydrological cycles[J].Hydrological Processes, 2006, 20: 3159-3178.
[20]
Li T, Xiao H L, Li X R. Modeling the effects of crust on rain infiltration in vegetated sand dunes in arid desert[J].Arid Land Research and Management,2001,15:41-48.
[21]
Li Xinrong, Jia Yukui, Long Liqun. Advances in microbiotic soil crust research and its ecological significant in arid and semiarid regions[J].Journal of Desert Research,2001, 21: 4-11.[李新荣, 贾玉奎, 龙力群.干旱半干旱地区土壤微生物结皮的生态学意义及若干研究进展[J]. 中国沙漠,2001, 21:4-11.]
[22]
Danin A.Plants of Desert Dunes[M]. Berlin, New York, Heidelberg:Springer, 1996.
[23]
Kidron G J, Yair A. Rainfall-runoff relationship over encrusted dune surfaces, Nizzana western Negev, Israel[J].Earth Surface Processes Landforms,1997, 22:1 169-1 184.
[24]
Li X R. Influence of variation of soil spatial heterogeneity on vegetation restoration[J].Science in China (Series D),2005,48:2 020-2 031.
[25]
Li X R, Zhang J G, Wang X P. Study on soil microbiotic crust and its influences on sand fixing vegetation in arid desert region[J].Acta Botanica Sinica,2000, 42: 965-970.
[26]
Wang Sh D, Bai X L, Yong Sh P. Preliminary research on bryoflora in Shapotou area[J].Journal of Desert Research,2001, 21: 244-249.
[27]
Palmqvist K. Carbon economy in lichens[J].New Phytologist,2000, 148: 11-36.
[28]
Li X R, Zhou H Y, Wang X P, et al. The effects of sand stabilization and revegetation on cryptogam species diversity and soil fertility in Tengger desert, northern China[J]. Plant and Soil,2003, 251:237-245.
[29]
Fearnehough W, Fullen M A, Mitchen Trueman D J I C, et al. Aeolian deposition and its effect on soil and vegetation changes on stabilized desert dunes in northern China[J].Geomorphology,1998, 23:171-182.
[30]
Fullen M A, Mitchell D J. Desertification and reclamation in north-central China[J]. AMBIO, 1994, 23: 131-135.
[31]
Malam Issa O. Morphology and microstructure of microbiotic soil crusts on a tiger bush sequence (Niger) Sahel[J].Catena, 1999, 37: 175-196.
[32]
Li X J, Li X R, Song W M, et al. Effects of crust and shrub patches on runoff, sedimentation, and related nutrient (C, N) redistribution in the desertified steppe zone of the Tengger desert, northern China[J].Geomorphlogy,2008,96: 221-232.
[33]
Greene R S B, Tongway D J. The significance of (surface) physical and chemical properties in determining soil surface condition of red-earths in rangelands[J].Australian Journal Soil Research,1989, 27: 213-225.
[34]
Johansen J R, St Clair L L, Webb B L, et al. Recovery patterns of cryptogamic soil crusts in desert rangelands following fire disturbance[J].Bryologist,1984, 87: 238-243.
[35]
Li X R, Kong D S, Tan H J, et al. Changes in soil and in vegetation following stabilisation of dune in southeastern fringe of the Tengger desert, China[J].Plant and Soil, 2007, 300: 221-231.
[36]
Zhang Y M. The spatial distribution patterns of biological soil crusts in the Gurbantunggut Desert, Northern Xinjiang, China[J]. Journal of Arid Environments,2007, 68: 599-610.
[37]
Hu C, Liu Y. Extracellular carbohydrate polymers from five desert soil algae with different cohesion in the stabilization of fine sand grain[J].Carbohydrate Polymers,2003, 54: 33-42.
[38]
Zhang Y M. The microstructure and formation of biological soil crusts in their early developmental stage[J].Chinese Science Bulletin, 2005, 50: 117-121.
[39]
Westoby M, Walker B, Noy-Meir I. Opportunistic management for rangelands not at equilibrium[J].Journal of Range Management,1989, 42: 266-274.
[40]
Gretarsdottir J, Aradottir A L, Vandvik V, et al. Long-term effects of reclamation treatments on plant succession in Iceland[J]. Restoration Ecology,2004, 12:268-278.
[41]
Briske D D, Fuhlendorf S D, Smeins F E. A unified framework for assessment and application of ecological thresholds[J]. Rangeland Ecology and Management,2006, 59: 225-236.
[42]
Williams J D, Dobrowolski J P, Gillette D A, et al. The Role of Microphytic Crusts on Wind Induced Erosion[M].Proceeding 46th Annual Meeting Society of Range Management, Albuquerque: New Mexico, USA, 1993.
[43]
Tisdall, J M, Oades J M. Organic matter and water-stable aggregates in soils[J].Journal of Soil Science,1982,33:146-163.
[44]
Greene R S B, Chartres C J. The effect of fire on the soil of the degraded semiarid woodland. I. Cryptogam cover and physical micromorphological properties[J].Australian Journal of Soil Research,1990,28:755-777.
[45]
Rogers R W. Blue-green algae in southern Australian rangeland soils[J].Australian Rangeland Journal,1989, 11: 67-73.
[46]
Chen R Y, Zhang Y M, Li Y, et al. The variation of morphological features and mineralogical components of biological soil crusts in the Gurbantunggut desert of Northwestern China[J]. Environmental Geology, 2008, doi:10.1007/s00254-008-1410-1.
[47]
Li X R, Xiao H L, He M Z. Sand barriers of straw checkerboards for habitant restoration in extremely arid desert regions[J]. Ecological Engineering,2006,28:149-157.
[48]
Bowker M A, Belnap J, Davidson D W, et al. Evidence for micronutrient limitation of biological soil crusts: Importance to arid-land restoration[J]. Ecological Applications,2005,15: 1 941-1 951.
[49]
Harper K T, Pendleton R L. Cyanobacteria and cyanolichens: Can they enhance availability of essential minerals for higher plants?[J]. Great Basin Naturalist,1993,53:59-72.
[50]
Maestre F T. Infiltration, penetration resistance and microphytic crust composition in contrasted microsites within a Mediterranean semi-arid steppe[J].Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 2002, 34: 895-898.
[51]
Xiao Bo, Zhao Yunge, Shao Ming′an. Effects of biological soil crust on saturated hydraulic conductivity in water-wind erosion crisscross region, North of Shaanxi province, China[J]. Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineering,2007, 23: 35-40.[肖波, 赵允格, 邵明安. 陕北水蚀风蚀交错区两种生物结皮对土壤饱和导水率的影响[J]. 农业工程学报,2007, 23: 35-40.]
[52]
Perez F L. Microbiotic crusts in the high equatorial Andes, and their influence on Paramo soils[J]. Catena,1997, 31: 173-198.[52] Bisdom E B A, Dekker L W, Schoute J F T. Water repellency of sieve fractions from sandy soils and relationships with organic material and soil structure[J].Geoderma,1993, 56: 105-118.
[53]
Wang X P, Li X R, Xiao H L. Effects of surface characteristics on infiltration pattern in an arid shrub desert[J].Hydrological Processes,2007, 21: 72-79.
[54]
Eldridge D J, Zaady E, Shachak M. Infiltration through three contrasting biological soil crusts in patterned landscapes in the Negev, Israel[J].Catena,2000,40:323-336.
[55]
Eldridge D J. Cryptogam cover and soil surface condition: Effects on hydrology in a semi-arid woodland[J].Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation,1993, 7: 203-217.
[56]
Eldridge D J, Tozer M E, Slangen S. Soil hydrology is independent of microphytic crust cover: Further evidence from a wooded semiarid Australian rangeland[J].Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation,1997, 11: 113-126.
[57]
Liu L C, Li S Z, Duan Z H. Effects of microbiotic crusts on dew deposition in the restored vegetation area at shapotou, northwestChina[J].Journal of Hydrology,2006, 328: 331-337.
[58]
Li X R, Xiao H L, Zhang J G, et al. Long-term ecosystem effects of sand-binding vegetation in the Tengger desert, northern China[J].Restoration Ecology,2004, 12: 376-390.
[59]
Belnap J. Factors influencing nitrogen fixation and nitrogen release in biological soil crusts[C]//Belnap J, Lange O L, eds. Biological Soil Crusts: Structure, Function and Management. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2003:241-261.
[60]
Kershaw K A. Physiological Ecology of Lichens[M]. London: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
[61]
Nash T H. Lichen Biology[M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
[62]
Bowker M A. Evidence for micronutrient limitation of biological soil crusts: Importance to arid-lands restoration[J].Ecological Applications,2005,15:1 941-1 951.
[63]
Rogers S L, Burns R G. Changes in aggregate stability, nutrient status, indigenous microbial populations, and seedling emergence, following inoculation of soil with Nostoc muscorum[J].Biology and Fertility of Soils,1994, 18: 209-215.
[64]
Harper K T, Belnap J. The influence of soil biological crusts on mineral uptake by associated vascular plants[J]. Journal of Arid Environments,2001,47:347-357.
[65]
Evans R D, Belnap J. Long-term consequences of disturbance on nitrogen dynamics in an arid ecosystem[J]. Ecology,1999, 80:150-160.
[66]
Evans R D, Lange O L. Biological soil crusts and ecosystem nitrogen and carbon 918 Understanding dryland landscape dynamics[C]//Belnap J, Lange O L,eds. Biological Soil Crusts: Structure, Function and Management. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2003: 263-279.
[67]
Barger N N. NO gas loss from biologically crusted soils in Canyonlands National Park, Utah[J].Biogeochemistry, 2005, 75: 373-391.
[68]
Lange O L. Photosynthesis of soil-crust biota as dependent on environmental factors[C]//Belnap J, Lange O L, eds. Biological soil Crusts: Structure, Function and Management. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2003:217-240.
[69]
Maestre F T, Cortina J. Small-scale spatial variation in soil CO2 efflux in a Mediterranean semiarid steppe[J].Applied Soil Ecology,2003,23: 199 -209.
[70]
Garcia-Pichel F,Belnap J. Microenvironments and microscale productivity of cyanobacterial desert crusts[J].Journal of Phycology,1996, 32: 774-782.
[71]
Budel B. Ecology and diversity of rock-inhabiting cyanobacteria in tropical regions, European[J].Journal of Phycology, 2000, 34: 361-370.
[72]
Nobel P S. Physicochemical and Environmental Plant Physiology[M].San Diego, CA:Academic Press, 1991.
[73]
Torgway D J, Ludwig J A. Vegetation and soil patterning in semiarid mulga lands of eastern Australia[J].Australian Journal of Ecology,1990, 15: 23-34.
[74]
Shubert L E, Starks T L. Algal succession on orphaned coal mine spoils[C]//Wali M K, ed. Ecology and Coal Resource Development. New York: Pergamon Press, 1979:661-667.
[75]
Starks T L, Shubert L E. Colonization and succession of algae and soil-algal interactions associated with disturbed areas[J]. Journal of Phycology,1982, 18: 99-107.
[76]
Balezina L E. Effect of concentrated mineral fertilizers on the growth of soil algae[J].Pochvovedeniye,1974, 9: 94-96.
[77]
King J M, Ward C H. Distribution of edaphic algae as related to land usage[J]. Phycologia,1977, 16: 23-30.
[78]
Greene B, Darnall D W. Microbial oxygenic photoautotrophs (cyanobacteria and algae) for metal-ion binding[C]//Ehrlich H L, Brierly C L, eds. Microbial Mineral Recovery. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990:277-302.
[79]
Geesey G, Jang L. Extracellular polymers for metal binding[C]//Ehrlich H L, Brierly C L, eds. Microbial Mineral Recovery. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990:223-247.
[80]
Gadd G M. Fungi and yeasts for metal accumulation[C]//Ehrlich H L, Brierly C L, eds. Microbial Mineral Recovery. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990:249-275.
[81]
Mclean R J G, Beveridge T J. Metal-binding capacity of bacterial surfaces and their ability to form mineralized aggregates[C]//Ehrlich H L, Brierly C L, eds. Microbial Mineral Recovery. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990:185-222.
[82]
Pirszel J, Pawlik B, Skowronski T. Cation-exchange capacity of algae and cyanobacteria: A parameter of their metal sorption abilities[J].Journal of Indian Microbiology,1995, 14: 319-322.
[83]
Paerl H W. Growth and reproductive strategies of freshwater blue-green algae (cyanobacteria)[C]//Sandgren C D, eds. Freshwater Blue-Green Algal Ecology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
[84]
Li X R, Jia X H, Zerb Stefen. Effects of biological soil crusts on seed bank, germination and establishment of two annual plant species in the Tengger desert (N China) [J].Plant and Soil,2005, 277: 375-385.
[85]
Su Y G, Li X R, Cheng Y W. Effects of biological soil crusts on emergence of desert vascular plants in North China[J].Plant Ecology,2007, 191:11-19.
[86]
Belnap J,Prasse R, Harper K T. Influence of biological soil crusts on soil environments and vascular plants[C]//Belnap J, Lange O L, eds. Biological Soil Crusts: Structure, Function and Management. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2003:281-300.
[87]
Johansen J R. Cryptogamic crusts of semiarid and arid lands of North America[J].Journal of Phycology,1993, 29: 140-147.
[88]
Anderson D C, Harper K T, Holmgren R C. Factors influencing development of cryptogamic soil crusts in Utah deserts[J]. Journal of Range Management,1982, 35: 180-185.
[89]
Jeffries D L, Klopatek J M.Effects of grazing on the vegetation of the blackbrush association[J].Journal of Range Management, 1987, 40: 390.
[90]
Carleton T J. Variation in terricolous bryophyte and macrolichen vegetation along primary gradients in Canadian boreal forests[J].Journal of Vegetation Science,1990, 1: 585-594.
[91]
Lesica P, Shelley J S. Effects of cryptogamic soil crust on the population dynamics of Arabis fecunda[J].American Midllde Naturist,1992, 128: 53-60.
[92]
Crisp M D. Long term change in arid zone vegetation at Koonamore, South Australia[Z]. Adelaide:University of South Australia,1975.
[93]
Zaady E, Gutterman Y, Boeken B. The germination of mucilaginous seeds of Plantago coronopus, Reboudia pinnata, and Carrichtera annua on cynobacterial soil crust from the Negev desert[J].Plant and Soil,1997,190: 247-252.
[94]
Belnap J, Gardner J S. Soil microstructure in soils of the Colorado Plateau: The role of the cyanobacterium Microcoleus vaginatus[J].Great Basin Naturist,1993, 53: 40-47.
[95]
Prasse R, Bornkamm R. Effects of microbiotic soil surface crusts on emergence of vascular plants[J].Plant Ecology,2000, 150: 65-75.
[96]
Harper K T, Marble J R. A role for non-vascular plants in management of arid and semi-arid rangelands[C]//Tueller P T, ed. Application of Plant Sciences to Rangeland Management. Amsterdam: Martinus Nijhoff /W. Junk, 1988:135-169.
[97]
Pendleton R L, Warren S D. Effects of cryptobiotic soil crusts and VA mycorrhizal inoculation on growth of five rangeland plant species[C]//West N E, ed. 5th Int Range Congress. Society of Range management, Salt Lake City, UT, 1995:436-437.
[98]
Gutterman Y. Strategies of seed dispersal and germination in plants inhibiting desert[J].Botanic Review,1994, 60: 373-416.
[99]
Evans R A, Young J A. Microsite requirements for downy brome (Bromus tectorum) infestation and control on sagebrush rangelands[J].Weed Science,1984,13: 13-17.
[100]
Boeken B,Sbachak M. Desert plant communities in human-made patches-implication for management[J].Ecological Application,1994, 4: 702-716.
[101]
Belnap J, Phillips S L, Troxler T. Soil lichen and moss cover and species richness can be highly dynamic: The effects of invasion by the annual exotic grass Bromus tectorum, precipitation, and temperature on biological soil crusts in SE Utah[J]. Applied Soil Ecology, 2006, 32: 63-76.
[102]
Jia R L, Li X R, Liu L C, et al. Responses of biological soil crusts to sand burial in vegetated area of the Tengger Desert, northern China[J].Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 2008, 40: 2 827-2 834.
[103]
West N E. Structure and function of microphytic soil crusts in wildland ecosystems of arid to semi-arid regions[J].Advances in Ecological Research,1990,20:179-223.
[104]
Eldridge D J, Greene R S B. Microbiotic soil crusts: A view of their roles in soil and ecological processes in the rangelands of Australia[J]. Australian Journal of Soil Research,1994, 32: 389-415.
[105]
Belnap J, Lange O L. Biological soil crusts: Structure, function, and management[M]. Germany, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2001.
[106]
Patrick E. Researching crusting soils: Themes, trends, recent developments and implications for managing soil and water resources in dry areas[J]. Progress in Physical Geography, 2002, 26: 442-461.
[107]
Li X R, Chen Y W, Yang L W. Cryptogam diversity and formation of soil crusts in temperate desert[J].Annals of Arid Zone,2004, 43: 335-353.
[108]
Bowker M A. Biological soil crust rehabilitation in theory and practice: An underexploited opportunity[J].Restoration Ecology, 2007, 15: 13-23.
[109]
Vies H. Understanding dryland landscape dynamics: Do biological crusts hold the key?[J].Geography Compass,2008,(2/3): 899-919.
[110]
Byers J E. Using ecosystem engineers to restore ecological systems[J].Trends in Ecology and Evolution,2006, 21: 493-500.
[111]
Gilad E. Ecosystem engineers: From pattern formation to habitat creation[J].Physical Review Letters,2004, 93, doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.93.098105.
[112]
Belnap J, Phillips S L, Miller M E. Response of desert biological soil crusts to alterations in precipitation frequency[J]. Oecologia,2004, 141: 306-316.
[113]
Kidron G J, Barzilay E, Sachs E. Microclimate control upon sand microbiotic crusts, western Negev desert, Israel[J]. Geomorphology, 2000, 36: 1-18.
[114]
Campbell S E, Seeler J, Golubic S. Desert crust formation and soil stabilization[J].Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation, 1989,3:217-288.
[115]
Chartres C J. Soil Crusting in Australia[C]//Sumner M E, Stewart B A, eds. Soil Crusting: Chemical and Physical Processes, Florida: Lewis Publishers, 1992:339-365.
[116]
Johansen J R. Impacts of fire on biological soil crusts[C]//Belnap J, Lange O L, eds. Biological Soil Crusts: Structure, Function and Management. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2001:385-397.
[117]
Bowker M A. Wildfire-resistant biological soil crusts and fire-induced loss of soil stability in Palouse prairies, USA[J].Applied Soil Ecology,2004, 26: 41-52.
[118]
Belnap J, Gillette D A. Disturbance of biological soil crusts: Impacts on potential wind erodibility of sandy desert soils in southeastern Utah[J].Land Degradation and Development,1997, 8: 355-362.
[119]
Belnap J. Impacts of off-road vehicles on nitrogen cycles in biological soil crusts: Resistance in different US deserts[J]. Journal of Arid Environments,2002, 52:155-165.
