See the sixth tentative draft of the Restatement of the Law Third, Torts: Liability for Physical and EmotionalHarm, Philadelphia, 2009, at the website: http://www. ah. org.
[2]
有关这些努力的介绍,尤其是批判性的分析可参见M. Bussani, M. Infantino, F. Werro, The CommonCore Sound. Short Notes on Themes, Harmonies and Disharmonies of European Tort Law, 20 King''s L. J. (2009)
[3]
Ch. von Bar, The Common European Law of Torts,Oxford, 1998,1, 20 f.;259 f.;J. Gordley, A. T.von Mehren, An Introduction to the Comparative Study of Private Law,Cambndge, 2006,335 f.;C. van Dam, Eu-ropean Tort Law, Oxford, 2006,46 f.,66 f.,88 f.;W. van Gerven, J. Lever, P. Larouche, Cases,Materials andText on National Supranational and International Tort Law,Oxford-Portland(Or.),2000,44 f.
[4]
为此目的,我们将“过失侵权责任”这一短语与大陆法系的“responsabilite pour faute”或“Verschul-denshaftung”的含义等同。这三个概念当然不同,但这些区别与本文的主旨无关。这方面的比较研究,例见P.Catala and J. A. Weir, Delict and Torts: A Study in Parallel. Part I, 37 Tulane Law Rev. 574,589 ff.(1963);Ch. von Bar, The Common European Law of Torts, 1, cit.,6 ff.,281 ff.;W. Van Gerven, J. Lever, P.Larouche, Cases, Materials and Text on National, Supranational and International Tort Law, cit.,44 f.,57 ff.;G. Brilggemeier, Common Principles of Tort Law. A Pre-Statement of Law,London, 2004,65 ff.;B. S. Markesinisand H. Unberath, The German Law of Torts. A Comparative Treatise, 4th ed,Oxford-Portland(Or.),2002,43ff.;S. Deakin, A. Johnston, B. S. Markesinis, Tort Law, 5th ed.,London, 2003,74 ff.;J. Gordley, A. T. vonMehren, An Introduction to the Comparative Study of Private Law, cit.,353 f.; J. Gordley, Foundations of PrivateLaw. Property, Tort, Contract, Unjust Enrichment, Oxford, 2006,159,196 ff.
[5]
在较早的文献中,例见R. Gianturco, Sistema di diritto civile italiano, 2nd ed,Napoli, 1994, 1, 227;G. Chironi, Colpa extracontrattuale, 2nd ed.,Torino, 1903,1, 48 ff.,76 ff.;G. Rotondi,Dalla “Lex Aquilia”all''art. 1151 cod. civ.,in Riv. dir. comm.,1917,236, 284 ff.;A. Sourdat, Traité general de la responsabilité,2nd ed.,Paris, 1872,I, 417 ff.,458;R. Savatier, Traite de la responsabilite civile, 2nd ed.,Paris, 1951,I, 5.较新近的文献有:S. Rodota, Il problema della responsabilita civile, Milano, 1964, 183 ff.;C. Castronovo, La nuo-va responsabilita civile,3rd ed.,Milano, 2006,45 ff.;P. Le Tourneau, La responsabilite civile,Paris, 2003,40;P. Brun, Responsabilite civile extracontractuelle, Paris, 2005,105 f.;G. Viney and P. Jourdain, Les conditions dela responsabilite, 3rd ed.,Paris, 2006, 182 f.;361 f.这一进路似乎也得到欧洲侵权法起草小组的认同:Princi-ples of European Tort Law. Text and Commentary, Wien, 2005;尤其注意以下条文1:101, 2:101, 2:102, 3:101,3: 102, 3:103, 3:201, 4:101, 4:102以及在以下页数所做的评注19 ff.;23 ff.;43 ff.;59 ff.;64 ff.普通法系的法律人对本文致力研究的问题有更多的了解。就对“过失侵权的概念结构”的批评,参见P. Cane, Atiyah''s Accidents, Compensation and the Law, 7th ed.,Cambridge, 2006, 34 f.;J. Stapleton, Controlling the Future ofthe Common Law by Restatement, in S. Madden(ed.),Exploring Tort Law, Cambridge, 2005, 262 f.;Ead.,Le-gal Cause: Cause-in-Fact and the Scope of Liability for Consequences, 54 Vanderbilt L. Rev. 941,1006 f. (2001);J. C. P. Goldberg, A. J. Sebok, B. C. Zipursky, Tort Law: Responsibility and Redress,New York, 2004,3 f.;T.Weir, A Casebook on Tort, 10th ed.,London, 2004,6 f.;S. Deakin, A. Johnston, B. Markesinis, Tort Law, 5thed.,cit. , 74 ff. J. G. Fleming, The Law of Torts, 8th ed.,Sydney, 1992, 103批判了大量的“人为概念如‘注意义务’和‘损害的遥远性’”,法官为了在过失侵权诉因的框架下分配责任创造了这些概念。Cp. J. Frank, Lawand the Modern Mind, Gloucester, Mass.,1970 (repr. 1963, original ed. 1930),30,指出,过失侵权只是许多具有“最含糊”的意思,然而却被当作“具有精确而清晰的定义”来使用,以创造出“一个实际上并不存在的连续性、一致性、明确性的表象”的普通使用的词语中的一个;类似的论述参见J. A. Jolowicz和多人合著,Pro-cedural Questions,in Int. Enc. Comp. Law. XI, ch. 13,34.
[6]
参见F. Werro, La responsabilite civile, Berne, 2005,多处,尤其是以下页数:15-108, 233-308; G.Bruggemeier, Common Principles of Tort Law, cit.,43 f.;S. Deakin, A. Johnston and B. Markesinis, Tort Law,5th ed.,cit.,74 f.,in particular 77 ff.;Ch. von Bar, The Common European Law of Torts, cit.,1,58 ff.;11, 5ff.,202 ff.,234 ff.;P. G. Monateri, La responsabilita civile, in Tratt. dir. civ. edited by R. Sacco, Torino,1998,15 f.
[7]
在这一方面,参见P. Cendon, Il dolo nella responsabilita extracontrattuale, Torino, 1976,225.
关于这一点,特别值得一提的有P. Cane, Atiyah''s Accidents, Compensation and the Law, 7th ed.,cit.,222 f.;G. I.Priest, The Current Insurance Crisis and Modem Tort Law, 96 Yale L. J. 1521,1535 f.(1987);G. Viney, Le declin de la responsabilité civile, Paris, 1967;P. Trimarchi, Rischio e responsabilitd oggetti-va, Milano, 1961, 30 f.;从比较法学家的视角出发,特别是B. W. Dufwa, Insurance in a European Tort LawPerspective, in M. Bussani(ed.),European Tort Law, Berne-Bruxelles-Athens-Munich, 2007,133,144-145;G.Bruggemeier, The Common Principles of Tort Law, cit.,270 f.;J. Stapleton, Tort Insurance and Ideology, 58 Mod-ern L. Rev. 819,820 f.(1995);B. Markesinis, La perversion des notions de responsabilite civile delictuelle par lapratique de l''assurance, in Rev. int. dr. comp.,1983,301 f.;Alb. Jr. Ehrenzweig, Assurance Oblige. A compara-tive study, 15 Law&Contemp. Problems 445 f.(1950).
[11]
J. Stapleton, Legal Cause, cit.,985-986, 1007;J. Spier, 0. A. Hanzen, Comparative Conclusions onCausation, in J. Spier(ed.),Unification of Tort Law:Causation, The Hague, 2000,134-136; J.J. Thomson, TheDecline of Cause, 76 Georgetown L. J. 137,138(1987);A. M. Honore, Causation and Remoteness of Damage,inInternational Enc. Comp. L.,The Hague, 1971,XI, 7,64-65
[12]
这是一种在大陆法系尤其广为流传的态度,那里的司法文化不大可能允许法官像普通法法官那样(经常)将明确的判决理由置于显要的位置。关于这一点,见M. Bussani and V. V. Palmer( eds) , Pure Eco-nomic Loss in Europe, Cambridge (U. K.) , 2003.(该著作的中文版已由法律出版社于2005年出版),11 f.
[13]
众所周知,因果关系的建立被认为是一个发现事实的过程,其确定(如果有坚实的依据)不受上级法院的审查:德国这方面的情况,见B. Markesinis and H. Unberath, The German Law of Torts, cit.,691; BGH,19 July 2004,in BGHZ 160,149;BGH, 12 March 1996,in BGHZ, 132,164; BGH, 23 October 1951,in BGHZ,3, 261;就法国这方面的情况:P. Le Tourneau, Droit de la responsabilite et des contrats, Paris, 2005, 398; S. Ga-land-Carval, Causation in French Law,in J. Spier(ed.),Unification of Tort Law: Causation, The Hague.,2000,53,54;Y. Lambert-Faivre, De la poursuite a la contribution: quelques arcanes de la causalite, in D.,1992,311;Cass. civ.,lere, 5 April 2005,in Bull. civ.,I, 173;Cass. civ.,18re, 23 September 2003,in Bull. civ.,2003,1, 188; Cass. civ.,3 eme, 19 February 2003, in Resp. civ. et assur.,2003, comm.,125;比利时这方面的情况:H. Cousy and A. Venderspikken, Causation under Belgian Law,in J. Spier, Unification of Tort Law, cit.,24-25;J. Eckert and R. Fouques-Dupare, Belgique et Luxembourg, in R. Rodiere(ed.),Faute et lien de causalité dassnla responsabilite delictuelle. étude comparative dans les pays du marché commun, Paris, 1981, 88, 94;意大利这方面的情况:C. Salvi, La responsabilita civile,,2nd ed.,Milano, 2005,223;Cass.,15 January 2003,n. 472, inGiust. civ. mass.,2003,90; Cass.,3 December 2002,n. 17152,in Danno resp.,2003,497;Cass.,24 Septem-ber 2002, n. 13907, ib.,2003, 273;普通法系这方面的情况,特别值得一提的有:J. C. P. Goldberg, A. J. Se-bok, B. C. Zipursky, Tort Law : Responsibility and Redress, cit.,227;A. M. Honore, Causation and Remoteness ofDamage,in Int. Enc. Comp. Law, XI, ch. 7,20.
[14]
See P. Catala, J. A. Weir, Delict and Torts: A Study in Parallel. cit.. 673-674.
[15]
App. Genova, 18 March 1929, in Rep. Foro It.,1929, voce Responsabilita civile, n. 317.同样的事情发生在一位孕妇在听到摩托车撞墙而流产的情形中[Bourhill v. Young (1943) AC 92];以及某人在电视上目睹他/她的家人死于足球比赛看台坍塌事故的情形中[ Alcockv.Chief Constable of South Yokshire (1992) 1 AC 310, sul quale v.pure H. Teff, Liability for Psychiatric Illness after Hillsborough, 12 Oxford J. Legal Studies 440 f. (1992) ];以及某人在报纸上看到自己家人已死的错误报道的情形中[Guay v. Sun Publishing Co. (1953) 4 DLR 577].更多的材料,见P.Handford, Mullany and Handford''s Tort Liability for Psychiatric Damage, Sydney, 2006, 2nd ed.;P. Cane, Atiyah''s Acci-dents, Compensation and the Law, 7th ed.,cit.,84 f.;G. Bruggemeier, Common Principles of Tort Law, cit.,204 f.;Ch. von Bar, The Common European Law of Torts, Oxford, 2000, II , 73 f.美国法出现了类似的结果,见Goldberg, A.J. Sebok, B.C. Zipursky, Tort Lau:Responsibility and Redress,New York, 2004, 627;D. W. Robertson, An AmericanPerspective, in S. Deakin, A. Johnston, B. Markesinis, Tort Law, 5th ed.,cit.,230 f.;Id.,Liability in Negligence forNervous Shock, 57 Modern L Rev. 649 f. (1994);H. Teff, Liability for Negligently Inflicted Psychiatric Harm: Justifica-tions and Boundaries, 57 Cambridge Law J. 91 (1998);P. A. Bell, The Bell Tolls: Toward Full Tort Recovery for PsychicInjury, 36 Univ. Florida Law Rev. 333 (1984).
[16]
Cass. civ.,28me, 24 May 2006, in Bull. civ.,2006,II , 137;Cass. civ.,28me, 24 February 2005,in Rev. trim. dr. civ.,2005,404, obs. P. Jourdain.
[17]
Cass. , sez. lav. , 23 February 2000, n. 2037, in Danno resp. , 2000, 1203(“家庭成员的痛苦与创伤并非直接的后果……而只是间接的后果……,且……距离被告的行为过于遥远”)。
[18]
Trib. Milano, 24 September 2002, in Danno resp.,2003, 1130;德国判例法拒绝—在欠缺适用民法典第826条的要件的情况下—对忠实的一方配偶遭受的损害予以赔偿,其理由是这种情形宜于由家庭法裁断,见BGH, 3 November 1971,BGHZ 57,229, 231-233;BGH, 30 January 1957,BGHZ, 23,215;BGH, 21 March1956, NJW, 1956, 1149 f.;也见Ch. von Bar, The Common European Law of Torts,cit.,II, 124f.;B. Markesinisand H. Unberath, The German Law of Torts, cit.,371 f.
[19]
Cass. civ,lere, 3 October 1990, in Bull. civ.,1990, II, 184;也见Cass. civ.,2eme, 15 January1997, in Bull. civ. , 1997, 1, 13(母亲辞职回家照顾在车祸中终身残疾的孩子);Cass. civ. , 2eme, 14 June1995, in Bull. civ.,1995, II , 187(作为原告的寡妇在其丈夫被被告杀害后继承其夫的生意,后因生意失败遭受消极的经济后果);Cass.,7 January 1991,n. 60, in Foro It.,1991,1, c. 459(丈夫在妻子车祸受伤后辞职照顾她);App. Gent, 14 May 1982, in R. W.,1984-1985, 1464(丈夫在其妻子养伤时,辞去工作照顾她的店铺);也见下列书中讨论的案件G. Bruggemeier, Common Principle of Tort Law, cit. , 182-184; M. Bussani and V. V.Palmer (eds).Pure Economic Loss in Europe,cit.,328 f..
[20]
Caparo Industries plc.v.Dickman(1990) 2 AC 605;也见Trib. Amiens, 20 June 1988,in Bull. civ.,1988,317;Trib. Aix en Provence, 7 June 1985,in Bull. civ.,1985,487.
[21]
见下文,尤其是从第六至第八。
[22]
这个推理的前提某些时候会产生不同的结论,当“客观”过错的概念运用于其个人特性“低于”或“高于’,社会一般成员的人身上时就是如此。关于这一点,见M. Bussani, Negligence and Fault: Underneath theVeil, in Essays in Honour of Prof. Konstantinos Kerameus,Ant. N. Sakkoulas, Athens,2009;M. Martin-Casals(ed.),Children in Tort Law,Part I. Children as Tortfeasors, Vienna-New York, 2006,14,28,154-155,221-222,427-428;Id.(ed.),Children in Tort Law, Part II: Children as Victims, Vienna-New York, 2006,302-303;N. Kasirer, The infans as bon pere de famille:“Objectively Wrongul Conduct” in the Civil Law Tradition, 40 Am. J.Comp. L. 343 ff.(1992).
[23]
Shirley Cloah&Dress Co.v.Arnold (1956),92 Ga.App.885, 90 f. E. 2d 622;类似的有Thelen v.Spilman(1957),251 Minn. 89,86 N. W. 2d, 700; Armsteadv.Holbert(1961),146 W. Va. 582,122 f. E. 2d43;其他的案件见M. Bussani and M. Infantino, Fault, Causation and Damage in the Law of Negligence. A Com-parative Appraisal, in A. Colombi Ciacchi, C. Godt, P. Rott, L. J. Smith(eds.),Haftungsrecht im dritten Millen-nium-Liability in the Third Millennium. Liber Amicorum Cert Brueggemeier, Baden Baden, 2009,145 f.;lid.,LaCorte costituzionale, l''illecito e it govern della colpa, in M. Bussani(ed.),La responsabilttd civile nella giurispru-denza costituzionale, Napoli, 2006, 3,26 f.;M. Bussani,As peculiaridades do nocao de culpa:um estudo de direitocomparado, Porto Alegre, 2000.
[24]
Life Ins. Co. v. Lopez (1983),443 So. 2d 947; New England Mut. Life Ins. Co. v. Null (1979),605 F. 2d696, 61 A. L. R. 2d 1346: Ramey v. Carolina Life Ins. Co.(1964),244 f.C. 16, 135 f.E. 2d 362. 9 A. L. R. 3 1164.
[25]
Cass.,15 October 1971,n. 2918,in Rep. Foro It.,1971,voce responsabilitd civile, n. 66.
[26]
该草案的英文译本由薛军教授慷慨提供给我。
[27]
Paris, 10 February 1954, in D.,1954, 257在同样的框架内,当医生面对一个罕见且不规范的术后综合症时未采取适当措施避免损害发生,他是有过失的。本案中的医生是该国进行这类手术的顶尖专家之一,他在过去的手术中(大概600至800次)都成功地采用了特别的预防措施,它避免了本案原告抱怨的同样的不适后果(Valentinev.Kaiser Foundation Hospitals(1961),194 Cal.App. 2d, 282,15 Cal. Rptr. 26).
[28]
Swan V.Lamb, 485 P. 2d 814 (1978);类似的案件见McClarin,Grenzfelder, 147 Mo. App. 478; 126 S.W. 817 (1910)(一位治疗疝气的专家);Lewisv.Read 80 N. J. 148, 193 A. 2d 255(1963)(一位产科医生).
[29]
例如,一个翻越赛马场栅栏的人惊动了一些被圈养的小马,它们逃走引起了损害。他被发现有疏忽,他应持有高于普通人的注意标准,因为他曾接受过骑师训练,因而可以迅速地猜出小马对自己的行为会做出什么样的反应。( Cass. civ.,15 March 1956, in D.,1956, 445).与此类似,一名妇女在一个岩洞景观游玩时滑到并摔伤了(在本案是意大利的卡斯泰拉纳岩洞),尽管这个岩洞十分黑暗且无护栏,她被发现有过错,并被主张要适用高于“普通女性”的标准,因为她被发现是一名曾去过许多岩洞的岩洞专家,却在这个特定的场合未穿适于走这种路的鞋子。( Cass.,14 January 2000 no. 366, in Foro It,2001,1, c. 205)
[30]
Cass.,6 May 1986,no. 3031,in Giur. It.,I'' l,1527,1538 ff.
[31]
App. Milano, 14 October 1960, in Riv. Dir. Sport, 1961,196, affirmed by Cass.,22 November 1961,in Resp. civ. prev.,1962,507.
[32]
进一步的论述(以及警告)见M. Bussani and V. V. Palmer (eds),Pure Economic Loss, cit.,139f.;148 f.
[33]
Cass.,19 September 2003 n. 13934 (2004) Diritto della banca e del mercato finanziario 291;see also P.Le Tourneau, Responsabilite civile professionnelle, 2nd ed.,Paris, 2005,66 -67;G. Brunet, La responsabilite civile dubanquier dispensateur de credit, in Dr. bancaire, 1998,1,318 f.;G. Alpa, M. Bessone, V. Zeno Zencovich, Ifatttilleciti, in Tratt. dir. priv. Rescigno, Milano, 1995,299-300; R. Cuignet, La responsabiltte juridique du banquierdonneur de credit, in Rev,(belge) Banque, 1976, 4 f.;A. Zenner, Responsabilites du donneur de credit, in Rev.(belge) Banque, 1974, 707;J. Stoufflet, L''ouverture de credit peut-elle etre source de responsabilite envers le tiers? inJuris class. per.,1965,I, 1882.
[34]
Ultramares Corp.vTouche, 255 N. Y. 170, 174 N. E. 641 (N. Y. 1931);相同的思路,见State StreetTrust Co. v. Ernst, 278 N. Y. 104, 15 K. E. 416 (N. Y. 1938)-重过失.
[35]
LaSalle National Bankv.Duff&Phelps Credit Rating Co.,951 F. Supp. 1071(1996);In Re TaxableMunicipal Bond Securities Litigation, 1993 U. S. Dist. LEXIS 18592 (1993)-漫不经心。
[36]
Cass.,24 May 1982, n. 2765, in Giust. civ.,1982, 1, 1749.对这一案件的比较法例示见M. Bussaniand V. V. Palmer (eds.),Pure Economic Loss in Europe, cit.,362 f.
[37]
Springv·Guardian Assurance[1995] 2 AC 296(HL),漫不经心。
[38]
在事件因果链条的不确定性可通过考虑被告行为的可责性澄清的情况下尤其如此,结果是过错的确定克服了有关因果关系的疑问:例见G. Viney and P. Jourdain, Les conditions de la responsabilité, 3rd ed. ,cit.,191 f.,202;T. Weir, A Casebook on Tort, 10th ed.,cit.,12;L. Reiss, Le juge et le prejudice. Etudecomparee des droits franpais et anglais, Aix-Marseille, 2003,227;B. Starck, H. Roland, L. Boyer, Responsabilitedelictuelle, 5th ed.,Paris, 1996, 443;M. Grady, Proximate Cause and the Law of Negligence, 69 Iowa L. Rev.363,364(1984);P. Cendon, Il dolo, cit.,especially 368 ff.; P. Trimarchi, Causalita e danno, Milano, 1967,107;F. Chabas,L''influence de la pluralite de causes,Paris, 1967,95;P. Esmein, Le nez de Cleopatre, ou les affresde la causality, in Dalloz, 1964,chr.,205,207;W. S. Malone, Ruminations on Cause-in-Fact, 9 Stanford L.Rev. 60,72-73(1956);G. Cornu, obs. a Cass. trim.,10 juillet 1952,in JCP, 1952,II , 7272; G. Marty,Larelation de cause a effet comme condition de la responsabilité civile (etude comparative des conceptions allemande, ang-laise et francaise),in Rev. trim. droit civil, 1939,709 f.
[39]
例见Cass.,2 October 1998,no. 9794, in Giust. Civ. Mass.,1998, 1995(一位老年妇女);Cass.,15November 1996, no. 10015, in Giust. Civ. Mass. , 1996, 1525(一位65岁的妇女); Hickman v. Missouri P. R.Co.,91 Mo. 433, 4 S. W. 127 (1886)(一位65岁体重170磅的妇女);KearneyvSeaboard Air Line R. Co., 158N. C. 521, 74 S. E. 593 (1912)(一位69岁的老头);Findley v. Central R. Co. , 7 Ga. App. 180, 66 S. E. 485(1909)(一位老年妇女); Missouri P. R. Co.v.Watson, 72 Tex. 631, 10 S. W. 731 (1889)(怀有两个月身孕的妇女从地面登上火车要攀过近一米的高度,中间没有台阶可供依凭,结果在这个过程中受伤);West v. St. LouisS. W. R. Co.,187 Mo. 351, 86 S. W. 140 (1905)(在类似的一个案件中,法院认为“在法律上她并不因未告知车组成员—全部是男性—自己已怀孕了而具有共同过失”) ; Denver & R. G. R. Co.v.Derry, 47 Colo. 584,108 P 172 (1910)(一位盲人);Turner v. Wabash R. Co. , 211 S. W. 101 (Mo. App. 1919)(一位72岁的旅客因自己左半边身体瘫痪,在运动右腿时有困难) ; Texas & P. R. Co.v.Reid, 74 S. W. 99 (Tex.App. 1903 )(一位年老的聋妇,双腿行动不便);Garbuttv.Schechter, 167 Cal. App. 2d 396 (1959)(一位体重200磅的妇女);Da-ly v. Liverpool Corporation, 2 All E. R. 142 (1939)(一位77岁的妇女);Haley v. London Electricity Board [ 1965 ]Appeal Cases 778(一位盲人);Paris, 9 January 1961,in D. 1961,153,还有J. C. P. 1961,II, 12062(一位82岁的妇女);Paris, 29 March 1962, in J. C. P. 1962, II, 12874(一位70多岁的妇女);Gadsden & A. Unon R. Co.v.Causler, 97 Ala. 235, 12 So. 439 (1983)(一位双腿行动不便的男子);Rosenthal v. Chicago & A. R. Co,255Ill 522, 99 N. E. 672 (1912)(一位仅余一目剩下部分视力的男子);Georgia Power Co.v.Weaver, 68 Ga.App.652, 23 S. E. 2d 730 [1942)(一位上了年纪的人).
[40]
Shanahanv.St. Louis Transit Co. 109 Mo. App. 229,83 S. W. 783(1904).
[41]
Poakv.Pacific Electric R. Co.,177 Cal. 190,170 P. 159(1918).
[42]
G. Williams,The risk principle, 77 L.Qwart. Rei.179,202,nt. 56(1961);K. Oftinger, Schwei-zerisches Haftpflichtrecht,1, Allgemeiner Teil, Zurich, 1958,2nd ed.,92; M. Planiol, G. Ripert, J. Boulanger,Traité pratique de droit civilf fANais,Paris, 1957,II, 787;P. Trimarchi,Causalita e danno, cit.,129.
[43]
Cass. , 7 February 1996,n. 969,in Foro It.,1996,1, c. 2482.
[44]
Jones v. Boyce[1816] 170 Eng. Rep. 540;Restatement of Torts,2d, § 444,ill. 1;Twomleyv.Cen-tral Park, N.&E. River R. Co.,69 N. Y. 158,25 Am. Rep. 162(N.Y. 1877).
[45]
Cass.,sez. lav.,23 February 2000, n. 2037,in Giust. civ. mass.,2000,442.
[46]
Commissioners of Police for the Metropolisv.Reeves[1999] UKHL 35;[2000]1 AC 360;[1999] 3 AllER 897
[47]
Scott v. Shepherd(1773) 2 W. Bl. 892.
[48]
Cauverienv.De Metz, 1959, in C. 0. Gregory and H. Kalven, Cases and materials, 2nd ed.,Boston-To-ronto, 1969,354.
[49]
Rogersv.Williard, 1920, in W. P. Keeton (ed.),Prosser and Keaton on the law of torts,cit.,65,nt.2,66, nt. 7.
[50]
Cass. pen.,8 April 1953, in Giur. It.,1954, II, c. 255.某人把他的仇人绑在树林中央的一棵树上,希望后者饿死,他同样要为受害人脱水而死承担责任。( M. von Buri, uber Kausalitat und deren Verantwortung,Leipzig, 1873, 17) ;故意惊吓受害人致使后者在夺路而逃的时侯招来了狗的追咬的人,须为后者被狗咬伤承担责任(T. Brasiello, I limiti della responsabilita per danni, Milano, 1956, 365),也要为跑到商店里躲避的受害人因撞上酒架而受的伤负责〔Vandenburgh v. Truax, 4 Denio NY 464 (N. Y. 1847) ].不仅如此,X打伤了Y并将其留在一个众人皆知有凶猛野兽出没的树林里,Y后来并未死于X造成的伤害,而是因不能动弹被野兽吞食,X要为Y的死负责[P. Oertmann, Zur Lehre des Kausalzusammenhangs, in Goltdammer''s Arch. fur Strafrecht, 1875, 99;and also P. Marteau, De la notion de la causalite dans la responsabtlite civile, cit.,58;R. Demogue,Traite des obli-gations, Paris, 1923,IV, 14; F. Antolisei,Il rapporto di causalita nel diritto penale, Torino, 1960(rist. 1930),232].如果Nym打Pistol,后者尔后跌进一个坑里,他就要为Pistol穿在身上的被毁坏的衣服承担责任(F. Pol-lock, The law of torts, 12th ed.,London, 1923, 32:相同的道理,Nym向警察投掷石头,却将行驶于街上的马车上装载的啤酒桶打破了,他要为此负责)。如果A出于伤害的意图,骗受害人说他的妻子背叛了他,致使受害人因嫉妒自杀,A要对此负责(A. M. Honore, Causation and Remoteness of Damage, cit. , 111).如果A准备了一杯毒饮料打算晚上用它毒死B,可是B偶然发现它并在不知有毒的情况下喝了下去,A要为B的死负责(G. L. Wil-liams, The risk principle, cit.,201).同理,如果A放了一把火,他明知飓风正朝此处逼近,他要对火造成的所有损害承担责任,即便飓风扩大了这些损害(H. L. A. Hart and A. M. Honore, Causation in the Law, 2nd ed.,cit.,170);若某人把一个毒苹果放在房间的桌子上预备用来毒死他的妻子,却被女儿吃了,他要对女儿的死负责[Queenv.Saunders(1574) 2 Plowd. 473,quoted in J. Smith, Legal Cause in Actions of Torts, 26 Harvard L. Rei.223,231(1912)].
[51]
法国的情况,见Cass. civ.,4 January 1964, in Bull. civ.,1964, 11, n. 17, 13; Trib. Epinal, 11 Ju-ly 1925, in Gaz. Pal. 1925, 2, 629(一位聋且盲的妇女);Cass. civ. 17 November 1941,in S.,1942, 1, 13(失去一条腿的人);Rouen, 24 June 1954, in D.,1954, 739(双腿有残疾);Paris, 21 July 1930, in Gaz.Pal.,1930, 2,435(双腿有残疾).
[52]
Wattsv.Spokane P.&S. R. Co,88 Or. 192,171 P. 901(1918).
[53]
让我们顺带提一下,任何旨在追随德国模式将可赔偿的损失类型限定在一张立法者预先设定的绝对权的清单上的法典编纂努力(如同中国当前正在进行的这个)都必须注意,《德国民法典》的限制性文句迫使德国法官采取以下措施:在这个清单上增加新的权利;炮制出“违背善良风俗的意图”的要件(《德国民法典》第826条)以吸纳一些重过失行为;从合同制度的精巧之网获取“侧翼支持”,后者倾向于赔偿并非因侵犯绝对权造成的损失(该损失在侵权法规则下得不到赔偿)。See M. Bussani&V. V. Palmer ( eds.),Pure Eco-nomic Loss in Europe, cit. . 121 ff.:B. S. Markesinis and H. Unberath, The German Law of Torts, cit.,13,69 f.
[54]
就这一点存在广泛的共识:参见P. Cendon, Il dolo, cit,44 ff.;J. Gordlev, A. T. von Mehren, AnIntroduction to the Comparative Study of Private Law,cit.,342 ff.;J. Gordley,Foundations of Private Lau,cit.,184f.;J. G. Fleming, An Introduction to the Law of Torts,Oxford, 1969, 124; P. Trimarchi, Causalita e danno, cit.,41,84 ff.;M. Planiol, G. Ripert, J. Boulanger, Traite pratique de droit civil francais,Paris, 1957,11, 357,439;G. Williams, The risk principle, cit.,200 ff;K. Larenz, Tatzurechnung und“Unterbrechung des Kausalzusammen-ha nges ”,in Neue jurist. Wochenschrf , 1955,1009,1012; G. Carla, Sulla cosiddetta causalita giuridica: “fatto dan-noso e conseguenze”,in Riv. dir. comm.,1951,1, 410, 412(also published in Studi in onore di A. Cicu, Milano,1951,435);G. Ripert, La reparation du prejudice daps la responsabilite delictuelle,Paris, 1934, 99 ff.;A. Legal,De ln negligence et de l''imprudence comme source de responsabilite civile delictuelle, Paris, 1922,195 f;0. vonGierke, Deutsches Privatrecht, 111, Schuldrecht, Munchen u. Leipzig, 1917,79,nt. 68;H. T. Terry, Proximate con-sequences in the law of torts, 28 Harvard L. Rei.10, 171(1914);F. H. Bohlen, Contributory negligence,18 Har-yard L. Rev. 233 f.,235(1907-1908);L.von Traeger, Der Kausalbegriff in Straf- und Zivilrecht, Marburg, 1904,159; F. Geny, Risques et responsabilite, in Rei.trim.,1902, 842;P. F. Hall,Some observations on the doctrine ofproximate cause, 15 Harvard L. Rev. 541,562(1901-1902);M. Teisseire, Essai dune theorie generale sur le fonde-ment de ln responsabilite, Aix, 1901,178 if.;J. Beale, Recovery for consequences of an act, 9 Harv. L. Re?.80 f.,86(1895-1896)-also in Id,The proximate consequences of an act, 33 Harvard L. Rei.633 f,644 f.(1920)-;J.von Kries, itber der objectiven Moglichkeit und einige Anwendungen desselben, in Vierteljahresschrifl fur wissenschaftlichePhilosophie,1888,179,229-230 G. Ferrini,voce Delitti e quasi-delitti, in Dig. It.,1887-1889,IX, 727,795.亦见2009年1月5日的《中华人民共和国侵权责任法(草案)》第10条,第24条和第51条。
[55]
P. Cendon, II dolo, cit,45 f.
[56]
M. Bussani,Causalita e dolo nel diritto comparato della responsabilita, in Revista Trimestral de Direito Civ-il, 2007,127 f.;id.,Intention et lien de causalite daps le droit compare de la responsabtlite civile(la fable tres penconvenue de la malice qui accroche),in De tous horizons. Melanges Xavier Blanc-Jouvan, Paris, 2005,459,462.但是,就与本文配套的案例和评论,亦见,P. Oertmann, Zur lehre des Kausalzusammenhanges, in Goltdammer''s Arch.fur Strafrecht,1875,277;G. Ripen, Note sous Bordeaux 23 avril 1907,in Rev. crit. de legisl. et de jurispr.,1909,131;R. Demogue, Traite des obligations en general, I,IV,Paris, 1924, 9.
[57]
RG, 27 April 1931, in JW 1931.依据Restatement of Torts, 2nd, cit.,§ 870,若A之所以向B购买这项动产仅仅因为他/她知道C也想买,A被认定为要承担责任。
[58]
Lumleyv.Gye(1853) 2 E & B 216; British Motor Trade Associationv.Salvatori (1949) Ch. 556.
[59]
[56)App. Firenze, 28 July 1987, in Arch. civ. , 1988, 573;关于恶意行使罢工的法定权利,也参见B.Markesinis and H. Unberath, The German Law of Torts,cit.,891;L. Montuschi, It diritto di sciopero ed it c. d. dannoingiusto, in Rit.trim.,1968,49 f.,58.
[60]
P. Cendon, Ii dolo, cit.. 36.
[61]
M. Bussani, Intention et lien de causalite, cit,464;F. Chabas, L''influence de la pluralite de causes,cit.,93;E. Rabel, Das Recht des Warenkaufs,rist. Berlin, 1964, 1(original ed. 1936),507; G. Williams, Therisk principle, cit.,200ff.;G. Gorla, Sulla cosiddetta causalita giuridica,cit.,407;L. Green, Rationale of proxi-mate cause, Kansas City, 1927,22; P. Marteau, De la notion de la causalite dans la responsabilite civile, Marseille,1914,108;J. B. Ames, How far an act can be a tort because of the wrongful motive of the actor? 18 Harvard L.Rei.410, 421(1905);C. F. Gabba, Nuove questioni di diritto civile, Torino, 1905,11, 220,231-232;H. T. Ter-ry, Proximate consequences in the Law of Torts,cit.,17.