A large volume of generated sewage sludge makes its disposal a problem. The usage of sludge in agriculture is highlighted by a number of advantages. However, heavy metals and other toxic compounds may exercise harmful effects to soil organisms. This study evaluated the possible toxic effects of a biosolid sample, under laboratory conditions, for 30 days, using diplopods Rhinocricus padbergi and plants Allium cepa (onion) as test organisms. The data obtained demonstrated that the biosolid raw sample had genotoxic potential for Allium cepa root tip cells. In the diplopods exposed to biosolid sample, epithelium disorganization in the midgut and a reduction of the volume of the hepatic cells were observed after 7 days of exposure. After 30 days, the animals still showed a reduction of the volume of the hepatic cells, but in minor intensity. Allium cepa analysis showed genotoxicity, but this effect was reduced after 30 days of bioprocessing by diplopods. This study was important to know the effects as well as to determine how this waste could be applied concerning the soil living organisms and plants. 1. Introduction In sewage treatment plants (STP), after the sewage had been treated, a sludge rich in organic matter and nutrients is generated as a waste, known as sewage sludge. The composition of this sludge is very variable since it depends on the source of the sewage treatment process and the seasonality [1]. Generally, the sewage sludge presents around 40% to 60% of organic matter, 4% nitrogen, 2% phosphorus, and other macro- and micronutrients, besides potentially toxic elements [2]. The generated sewage sludge still can go through processes in order to increase the solids and reduce the number of pathogenic organisms, generating a residue called biosolid, which is considered most innocuous than the sewage sludge itself [3]. Good quality fertilizers can be generated with the sludge stabilization, reducing its volume through the use of “sludge thickeners drying beds,” filter presses, band presser, vacuum filters, and centrifugation [4]. According to Lambais and Do Carmo [5], chemical composition of the sludge depends on the origin of the wastewater. This way, the material is variable, but generally it is a compound rich in organic matter and essential nutrients for plants and microorganisms. Currently, sewage treatment plants in different Brazilian cities are facing the problem of sludge disposal. The alternatives to the sewage sludge usual fate are landfill disposal, reuse in industry (light-weight aggregate production, bricks and ceramics manufacturing,
References
[1]
R. P. Singh and M. Agrawal, “Potential benefits and risks of land application of sewage sludge,” Waste Management, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 347–358, 2008.
[2]
W. Bettiol and O. A. Camargo, “A disposi？？o de lodo de esgoto em solo agrícola,” in Lodo de Esgoto: Impactos Ambientais na Agricultura, W. Bettiol and O. A. Camargo, Eds., pp. 25–36, Embrapa Meio Ambiente, Jaguariúna, Brazil, 2006.
[3]
R. J. Haynes, G. Murtaza, and R. Naidu, “Chapter 4 inorganic and organic constituents and contaminants of biosolids. Implications for land application,” Advances in Agronomy, vol. 104, pp. 165–267, 2009.
[4]
C. Bertelli, Efeitos da disposi？？o de lodos de curtume no solo e na planta [Ph.D. thesis], Universidade Estadual Paulista, S？o Paulo, Brazil, 2011.
[5]
M. R. Lambais and J. B. Do Carmo, “Impacts ofbiosolids amendments on themicrobiota of tropical soils,” Revista Brasileira de Ciencia do Solo, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 1129–1138, 2008.
[6]
Q. Y. Cai, C. H. Mo, Q. T. Wu, Q. Y. Zeng, A. Katsoyiannis, and J. F. Férard, “Bioremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)-contaminated sewage sludge by different composting processes,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 142, no. 1-2, pp. 535–542, 2007.
[7]
W. J. Melo, M. O. Marques, and V. P. Melo, “O uso agrícola do biossólido e as propriedades do solo,” in Biossólidos na agricultura, M. T. Tsutiya, J. B. Comparini, P. A. Sobrinho et al., Eds., pp. 289–363, S？o Paulo, Brazil, 2001.
[8]
T. Natal-Da-Luz, S. Tidona, B. Jesus, P. V. Morais, and J. P. Sousa, “The use of sewage sludge as soil amendment—the need for an ecotoxicological evaluation,” Journal of Soils and Sediments, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 246–260, 2009.
[9]
C. E. Martínez and M. B. Mcbride, “Copper phytotoxicity in a contaminated soil: remediation tests with adsorptive materials,” Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 34, no. 20, pp. 4386–4391, 2000.
[10]
M. Khan and J. Scullion, “Effect of soil on microbial responses to metal contamination,” Environmental Pollution, vol. 110, no. 1, pp. 115–125, 2000.
[11]
D. J. Spurgeon and S. P. Hopkin, “Comparisons of metal accumulation and excretion kinetics in earthworms (Eisenia fetida) exposed to contaminated field and laboratory soils,” Applied Soil Ecology, vol. 11, no. 2-3, pp. 227–243, 1999.
[12]
N. Artuso, T. F. Kenedy, J. Connery, J. Grant, and O. Schmidt, “Effects of biosolids at varying rates on earthworms (Eisenia fetida) and springtails (Folsomia candida),” Applied and Environmental Soil Science, vol. 2011, Article ID 519485, 10 pages, 2011.
[13]
Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/censo2010/tabelas_pdf/total_populacao_sao_paulo.pdf, 2010.
[14]
Conselho Nacional do Meio Ambiente, “Define critérios e procedimentos para o uso de lodos de esgoto gerados em esta？？es de tratamento de esgoto sanitário e seus produtos derivados,” Resolu？？o number 375, Diário Oficial da Uni？o, DF, Brazil, 2006.
[15]
T. C. C. Fernandes, D. E. C. Mazzeo, and M. A. Marin-Morales, “Mechanism of micronuclei formation in polyploidizated cells of Allium cepa exposed to trifluralin herbicide,” Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, vol. 88, no. 3, pp. 252–259, 2007.
[16]
J. Rank and M. H. Nielsen, “Allium cepa anaphase-telophase root tip chromosome aberration assay on N-methyl-N-nitrosourea, maleic hydrazide, sodium azide, and ethyl methanesulfonate,” Mutation Research, vol. 390, no. 1-2, pp. 121–127, 1997.
[17]
M. L. S. Mello and B. C. Vidal, “A rea？？o de Feulgen,” Ciência e Cultura, vol. 30, pp. 665–676, 1978.
[18]
Z. Zakeri and R. A. Lockshin, “Cell death during development,” Journal of Immunological Methods, vol. 265, no. 1-2, pp. 3–20, 2002.
[19]
I. M. Cristea and M. D. Esposti, “Membrane lipids and cell death: an overview,” Chemistry and Physics of Lipids, vol. 129, no. 2, pp. 133–160, 2004.
[20]
D. M. Leme and M. A. Marin-Morales, “Allium cepa test in environmental monitoring: a review on its application,” Mutation Research, vol. 682, no. 1, pp. 71–81, 2009.
[21]
T. H. Ma and Z. Xu, “Validation of a new protocol of the Allium micronucleus test for clastogens,” Environmental Mutagenesis, vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 65–66, 1986.
[22]
Companhia Ambiental do Estado de S？o Paulo, “Valores orientadores para solos e águas subterraneas no Estado de S？o Paulo,” Norma number 195/2005-E, S？o Paulo, Brazil, 2005.
[23]
E. R. Fantazzini, C. S. Fontanetti, and M. I. Camargo-Mathias, “Midgut of the millipede, “Rhinocricus padbergi” Verhoeff, 1938 (Diplopoda: Spirobolida): histology and histochemistry,” Arthropoda Selecta, vol. 11, pp. 135–142, 2002.
[24]
W. Bettiol and R. Ghini, “Impacts of sewage sludge in tropical soil: a case study in Brazil,” Applied and Environmental Soil Science, vol. 2011, Article ID 212807, 11 pages, 2011.
[25]
G. Fisjek？, “Nucleolar dissolution induced by aluminium in root cells of Allium,” Physiologia Plantarum, vol. 59, pp. 508–511, 1983.
[26]
S. Minissi and E. Lombi, “Heavy metal content and mutagenic activity, evaluated by Vicia faba micronucleus test, of Tiber river sediments,” Mutation Research, vol. 393, no. 1-2, pp. 17–21, 1997.
[27]
T. D. S. Souza and C. S. Fontanetti, “Morphological biomarkers in the Rhinocricus padbergi midgut exposed to contaminated soil,” Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, vol. 74, no. 1, pp. 10–18, 2011.
[28]
W. F. Grant, “The present status of higher plant bioassays for the detection of environmental mutagens,” Mutation Research, vol. 310, no. 2, pp. 175–185, 1994.
[29]
S. Cotelle, J. F. Masfaraud, and J. F. Férard, “Assessment of the genotoxicity of contaminated soil with the Allium/Vicia-micronucleus and the Tradescantia-micronucleus assays,” Mutation Research, vol. 426, no. 2, pp. 167–171, 1999.
[30]
I. S. Grover and S. Kaur, “Genotoxicity of wastewater samples from sewage and industrial effluent detected by the Allium root anaphase aberration and micronucleus assays,” Mutation Research, vol. 426, no. 2, pp. 183–188, 1999.
[31]
S. T. Matsumoto and M. A. Marin-Morales, “Mutagenic potential evaluation of the water of a river that receives tannery effluent using the Allium cepa test system,” Cytologia, vol. 69, no. 4, pp. 399–408, 2004.
[32]
C. K. Grisolia, A. B. B. de Oliveira, H. Bonfim, and M. D. Klautau-Guimar？es, “Genotoxicity evaluation of domestic sewage in a municipal wastewater treatment plant,” Genetics and Molecular Biology, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 334–338, 2005.
[33]
L. C. Monte Egito, M. das Gra？as Medeiros, S. R. B. de Medeiros, and L. F. Agnez-Lima, “Cytotoxic and genotoxic potential of surface water from the Pitimbu river, northeastern/RN Brazil,” Genetics and Molecular Biology, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 435–441, 2007.
[34]
R. Caritá and M. A. Marin-Morales, “Induction of chromosome aberrations in the Allium cepa test system caused by the exposure of seeds to industrial effluents contaminated with azo dyes,” Chemosphere, vol. 72, no. 5, pp. 722–725, 2008.
[35]
D. M. Leme and M. A. Marin-Morales, “Chromosome aberration and micronucleus frequencies in Allium cepa cells exposed to petroleum polluted water—a case study,” Mutation Research, vol. 650, no. 1, pp. 80–86, 2008.
[36]
T. S. Souza, F. A. Hencklein, D. F. Angelis, R. A. Gon？alves, and C. S. Fontanetti, “The Allium cepa bioassay to evaluate landfarming soil, before and after the addition of rice hulls to accelerate organic pollutants biodegradation,” Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, vol. 72, no. 5, pp. 1363–1368, 2009.
[37]
B. Wang, “Cultural eutrophication in the Changjiang (Yangtze River) plume: history and perspective,” Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, vol. 69, no. 3-4, pp. 471–477, 2006.
[38]
C. Quiblier, C. Leboulanger, S. Sané, and P. Dufour, “Phytoplankton growth control and risk of cyanobacterial blooms in the lower Senegal River delta region,” Water Research, vol. 42, no. 4-5, pp. 1023–1034, 2008.
[39]
A. T. Natarajan, “Chromosome aberrations: past, present and future,” Mutation Research, vol. 504, no. 1-2, pp. 3–16, 2002.
[40]
M. G. Obe, P. Pfeiffer, J. R. K. Savage et al., “Chromosomal aberrations: formation, identification and distribution,” Mutation Research, vol. 504, no. 1-2, pp. 17–36, 2002.
[41]
S. De Flora, C. Bennicelli, and M. Bagnasco, “Genotoxicity of mercury compounds. A review,” Mutation Research, vol. 317, no. 1, pp. 57–79, 1994.
[42]
G. Voutsinas, F. E. Zarani, and A. Kappas, “The effect of environmental aneuploidy-inducing agents on the microtubule architecture of mitotic meristematic root cells in Hordeum vulgare,” Cell Biology International, vol. 21, no. 7, pp. 411–418, 1997.
[43]
P. C. S. Cardoso, P. L. Lima, M. O. Bahia, M. I. M. Amorim, R. R. Burbano, and R. A. F. Farias, “Efeitos biológicos do mercúrio e seus derivados em seres humanos—uma revis？o bibliográfica,” Belém: Universidade Federal do Pará, http://www.facome.uqam.ca/pdf/cardoso_2002.PDF.
[44]
J. A. P. De Godoy and C. S. Fontanetti, “Diplopods as bioindicators of soils: analysis of midgut of individuals maintained in substract containing sewage sludge,” Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, vol. 210, no. 1–4, pp. 389–398, 2010.
[45]
P. Alvarenga, P. Palma, A. P. Gon？alves et al., “Evaluation of chemical and ecotoxicological characteristics of biodegradable organic residues for application to agricultural land,” Environment International, vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 505–513, 2007.
[46]
R. Moreira, J. P. Sousa, and C. Canhoto, “Biological testing of a digested sewage sludge and derived composts,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 99, no. 17, pp. 8382–8389, 2008.
[47]
L. R. Nogarol and C. S. Fontanetti, “Acute and subchronic exposure of diplopods to substrate containing sewage mud: tissular responses of the midgut,” Micron, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 239–246, 2010.
[48]
D. G. Perez and C. S. Fontanetti, “Assessment of the toxic Potential of sewage sludge in the Midgut of the Diplopod Rhinocricus padbergi,” Water, Air and Soil Pollution, vol. 218, no. 1–4, pp. 1–8, 2010.
[49]
L. J. Cole, D. I. McCracken, G. N. Foster, and M. N. Aitken, “Using Collembola to assess the risks of applying metal-rich sewage sludge to agricultural land in Western Scotland,” Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, vol. 83, no. 1-2, pp. 177–189, 2001.
[50]
P. Andrés and X. Domene, “Ecotoxicological and fertilizing effects of dewatered, composted and dry sewage sludge on soil mesofauna: a TME experiment,” Ecotoxicology, vol. 14, no. 5, pp. 545–557, 2005.
[51]
T. R. Meyers and J. D. Hendricks, “Histopathology,” in Fundamental of Aquatic Toxicology: Methods and Applications, G. M. Rand and S. R. Petrocelli, Eds., pp. 283–331, Washington, DC, USA, 1985.
[52]
H. R. K？hler and R. Triebskorn, “Assessment of the cytotoxic impact of heavy metals on soil invertebrates using a protocol integrating qualitative and quantitative components,” Biomarkers, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 109–127, 1998.
[53]
R. Triebskorn, H. R. K？hler, T. Zanh et al., “Invertebrate cells as targets for hazardous substances,” Zeitschfirt fuer Angewandte Zoologie, vol. 78, pp. 277–287, 1991.
[54]
R. A. Triebskorn, I. F. Henderson, and A. P. Martin, “Detection of iron in tissues from slugs (Deroceras reticulatum Muller) after ingestion of iron chelates, by means of energy-filtering transmission electron microscopy (EFTEM),” Pesticide Science, vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 55–61, 1999.
[55]
C. S. Fontanetti, C. A. Christofoletti, T. G. Pinheiro, T. S. Souza, and J. Pedro-Escher, “Microscopy as a tool in toxicological evaluations,” in Microscopy: Science, Technology, Applications and Education, A. Méndez-Vilas and J. Diaz, Eds., pp. 1001–1007, Formatex Research Center, Badajoz, Spain, 2010.
[56]
V. Nero, A. Farwell, A. Lister et al., “Gill and liver histopathological changes in yellow perch (Perca flavescens) and goldfish (Carassius auratus) exposed to oil sands process-affected water,” Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, vol. 63, no. 3, pp. 365–377, 2006.
[57]
H. R. K？hler, “Localization of metals in cells of saprophagous soil arthropods (Isopoda, Diplopoda, Collembola),” Microscopy Research and Technique, vol. 56, no. 5, pp. 393–401, 2002.
