The study was conducted as a pot experiment in the tropical glasshouse to evaluate the response of grain legumes (Phaseolus vulgaris, Vigna unguiculata, and Lablab purpureus) in comparison to maize (Zea mays) and estimate their potential and performance. Two experiments were established using completely randomized design. Physiological measurements (stomatal conductance, photosynthetic activities, and transpiration rates) were measured using LCpro instrument. Scholander bomb was used for the measurement of plant cell water potential. Significant difference was observed in different plant species with increase of different water regimes. Among the legumes, L. purpureus showed better response in water stressed conditions. At the beginning, in dry watered treatment the photosynthetic rate was below 0？μmol？m？2？s？1 and in fully watered condition it was 48？μmol？m？2？s？1. In dry treatment, total dry weight was 10？g/pot and in fully watered condition it was near to 20？g/pot in P. vulgaris. The study concludes that water stress condition should be taken into consideration for such type of crop cultivation in arid and semiarid regions. 1. Introduction Water is the most common limiting factor to primary productivity in arid and semiarid areas [1]. Areas with higher precipitation in a region have more above-ground primary productivity [2, 3]. Water-use efficiency is often equated with drought resistance and the improvement of crop yield under stress conditions [4]. Water has an influence on grain yield and yield contributing parameters. Canopy development is sensitive to water deficit [5]. Water stress is one of the most important factors for legumes production. It affects not only the production of the grains but also the whole process of growth of all organs of the plants and metabolism [6]. Plant growth and development are affected by water stress affecting physiological and biochemical processes, for example, ion uptake, photosynthesis, respiration and translocation [7–11]. Environmental stresses such as drought, salinity, heat, and cold represent a significant constraint to meet the world food demand, for example, Islamic Republic of Iran, especially under low precipitation (often <250？mm per annum). Furthermore, the uneven temporal and spatial distributions have diode agronomists to pick the foremost effective irrigation strategies or drought tolerant cultivars [12]. Grain legumes are a major source of protein in arid and semiarid regions of the world and play a key role in the economies of arid and semiarid regions [13]. Multipurpose (dual purpose) legumes
References
[1]
J. H. Brown, T. J. Valone, and C. G. Curtin, “Reorganization of an arid ecosystem in response to recent climate change,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 94, no. 18, pp. 9729–9733, 1997.
[2]
M. L. Rosenzweig, “Net primary productivity of terrestrial communities: prediction from climatological data,” The American Naturalist, vol. 102, no. 923, pp. 67–74, 1968.
[3]
O. E. Sala, W. J. Parton, L. A. Joyce, and W. K. Lauenroth, “Primary production of the central grassland region of the United States,” Ecology, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 40–45, 1988.
[4]
A. Blum, “Drought resistance, water-use efficiency, and yield potential—are they compatible, dissonant, or mutually exclusive?” Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 56, no. 11, pp. 1159–1168, 2005.
[5]
T. C. Hsiao, “The soil-plant-atmosphere continuum in relation to drought and crop production,” in Drought Resistance in Crops with Emphasis on Rice, pp. 39–52, IRRI, Los Banos, Philippines, 1982.
[6]
M. J. Zimmermann, M. Rocha, and T. Yolanda, Bean Crop: Factors Affecting Productivity for the Presence of Potash and Phosphate, 1988.
[7]
C. A. Jaleel, R. Gopi, B. Sankar, M. Gomathinayagam, and R. Panneerselvam, “Differential responses in water use efficiency in two varieties of Catharanthus roseus under drought stress,” Comptes Rendus Biologies, vol. 331, no. 1, pp. 42–47, 2008.
[8]
C. A. Jaleel, P. Manivannan, G. M. A. Lakshmanan, M. Gomathinayagam, and R. Panneerselvam, “Alterations in morphological parameters and photosynthetic pigment responses of Catharanthus roseus under soil water deficits,” Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, vol. 61, no. 2, pp. 298–303, 2008.
[9]
C. A. Jaleel, R. Gopi, P. Manivannan, M. Gomathinayagam, R. Sridharan, and R. Panneerselvam, “Antioxidant potential and indole alkaloid profile variations with water deficits along different parts of two varieties of Catharanthus roseus,” Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, vol. 62, no. 2, pp. 312–318, 2008.
[10]
C. A. Jaleel, R. Gopi, and R. Panneerselvam, “Growth and photosynthetic pigments responses of two varieties of Catharanthus roseus to triadimefon treatment,” Comptes Rendus—Biologies, vol. 331, no. 4, pp. 272–277, 2008.
[11]
M. Farooq, S. M. A. Basra, A. Wahid, Z. A. Cheema, M. A. Cheema, and A. Khaliq, “Physiological role of exogenously applied glycinebetaine to improve drought tolerance in fine grain aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L.),” Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, vol. 194, no. 5, pp. 325–333, 2008.
[12]
A. Soltani and A. Faraji, Soil Water and Plant Relationship, Mashhad University, Mashhad, Iran, 2007.
[13]
J. Singh and A. Patal, “Water statues, gaseous exchange, proline accumulation and yield of mung bean in response to water stress,” Annual of Biology Ludhiana, vol. 12, pp. 77–81, 1996.
[14]
A. I. Moalafi, J. A. N. Asiwe, and S. M. Funnah, “Germplasm evaluation and enhancement for the development of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) dual-purpose F2 genotypes,” African Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 5, no. 7, pp. 573–579, 2010.
[15]
B. B. Singh, H. A. Ajeigbe, S. A. Tarawali, S. Fernandez-Rivera, and M. Abubakar, “Improving the production and utilization of cowpea as food and fodder,” Field Crops Research, vol. 84, no. 1-2, pp. 169–177, 2003.
[16]
B. C. Pengelly and B. L. Maass, “Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet—diversity, potential use and determination of a core collection of this multi-purpose tropical legume,” Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, vol. 48, no. 3, pp. 261–272, 2001.
[17]
B. L. Maass, R. H. Jamnadass, J. Hanson, and B. C. Pengelly, “Determining sources of diversity in cultivated and wild Lablab purpureus related to provenance of germplasm by using amplified fragment length polymorphism,” Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, vol. 52, no. 6, pp. 683–695, 2005.
[18]
K. Hoshikawa, “Significance of legume crops in improving the productivity and stability of cropping systems,” in Phosphorus Nutrition of Grain Legumes in the Semi Arid Tropices, C. Johannesen, K. K. Lee, and K. L. Sahrawat, Eds., pp. 173–181, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Paatancheru, India, 1991.
[19]
N. H. Nam, Y. S. Chauhan, and C. Johansen, “Effect of timing of drought stress on growth and grain yield of extra-short-duration pigeonpea lines,” Journal of Agricultural Science, vol. 136, no. 2, pp. 179–189, 2001.
[20]
J. P. Martínez, H. Silva, J. F. Ledent, and M. Pinto, “Effect of drought stress on the osmotic adjustment, cell wall elasticity and cell volume of six cultivars of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.),” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 30–38, 2007.
[21]
M. M. Chaves, J. S. Pereira, J. Maroco, et al., “How plants cope with water stress in the field. Photosynthesis and growth,” Annals of Botany, vol. 89, pp. 907–916, 2002.
[22]
A. R. Reddy, K. V. Chaitanya, and M. Vivekanandan, “Drought-induced responses of photosynthesis and antioxidant metabolism in higher plants,” Journal of Plant Physiology, vol. 161, no. 11, pp. 1189–1202, 2004.
[23]
C.-X. Zhao, L.-Y. Guo, C. A. Jaleel, H.-B. Shao, and H.-B. Yang, “Prospectives for applying molecular and genetic methodology to improve wheat cultivars in drought environments,” Comptes Rendus: Biologies, vol. 331, no. 8, pp. 579–586, 2008.
[24]
D. Pachico, “Trends in world P. vulgaris production,” H. F. Schwartz and M. A. Pastor Corrales, Eds., pp. 1–8, CIAT, Cali, Colombia, 1989.
[25]
A. V. Schoonhoven and O. Voysest, “Common beans in Latin America and their constraints,” in Bean Production Problems in the Tropics, H. F. Schwartz and M. A. PastorCorrales, Eds., pp. 33–57, CIAT, Cali, Colombia, 1989.
[26]
S. Beebe and B. McClafferty, Biofortified Beans, HarvestPlus, CIAT, Cali, Colombia, 2006, http://www.research4development.info/PDF/Outputs/Misc_Crop/beans.pdf.
[27]
R. Bressani, “Nutritive value of cowpea,” in Cowpea: Research, Production and Utilization, S. R. Singh and K. O. Rachie, Eds., pp. 353–360, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, USA, 1985.
[28]
G. Lemma, W. Worku, and A. Woldemichael, “Moisture and planting density interactions affect productivity in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata),” Journal of Agronomy, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 117–123, 2009.
[29]
B. B. Singh, “Recent genetic studies in cowpea,” in Challenges and Opportunities for Enhancing Sustainable Cowpea Production, C. A. Fatokun, S. A. Tarawali, B. B. Singh, P. M. Kormawa, and M. Tamo, Eds., pp. 3–13, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria, 2002.
[30]
A. S. Langyintuo, J. Lowenberg-DeBoer, M. Faye et al., “Cowpea supply and demand in West and Central Africa,” Field Crops Research, vol. 82, no. 2-3, pp. 215–231, 2003.
[31]
H. O. A. Elowad and A. E. Hall, “Influences of early and late nitrogen fertilization on yield and nitrogen fixation of cowpea under well-watered and dry field conditions,” Field Crops Research, vol. 15, no. 3-4, pp. 229–244, 1987.
[32]
M. B. Kwapata and A. E. Hall, “Effects of moisture regime and phosphorus on mycorrhizal infection, nutrient uptake, and growth of cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.),” Field Crops Research, vol. 12, pp. 241–250, 1985.
[33]
R. L. Fery, “The cowpea: production, utilization, and research in the United States,” Horticulture Review, vol. 12, pp. 197–222, 1990.
[34]
R. J. Carsky, B. Vanlauwe, and O. Lyasse, “Cowpea rotation as a resource management technology for cereal-based systems in the Savannas of West Africa,” in Challenges and Opportunities for Enhancing Sustainable Cowpea Production, C. A. Fatokun, S. A. Tarawali, B. B. Singh, P. M. Kormawa, and M. Tamo, Eds., pp. 252–266, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria, 2002.
[35]
S. A. Tarawali, B. B. Singh, S. C. Gupta, et al., “Cowpea as a key factor for a new approach to integrated crop-livestock systems research in the dry savannas of West Africa,” in Challenges and Opportunities for Enhancing Sustainable Cowpea Production, C. A. Fatokun, S. A. Tarawali, B. B. Singh, P. M. Kormawa, and M. Tamo, Eds., pp. 233–251, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria, 2002.
[36]
N. Sanginga, K. E. Dashiell, J. Diels, et al., “Sustainable resource management coupled to resilient germplasm to provide new intensive cereal-grain-legume-livestock systems in the dry savanna,” Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, vol. 100, no. 2-3, pp. 305–314, 2003.
[37]
B. B. Singh, “Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp,” in Genetic Resources, Chromosome Engineering and Crop Improvement, R. J. Singh and P. P. Jauhar, Eds., vol. 1, pp. 117–162, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla, USA, 2005.
[38]
M. P. Timko, J. D. Ehlers, and P. A. Roberts, “Cowpea,” in Genome Mapping and Molecular Breeding in Plants, C. Kole, Ed., vol. 3 of Pulses, Sugar and Tuber Crops, pp. 49–67, Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2007.
[39]
A. M. Murphy and P. E. Colucci, “A tropical forage solution to poor quality ruminant diets: a review of Lablab purpureus,” Livestock Research for Rural Development, vol. 11, no. 2, 1999, http://ftp.sunet.se/wmirror/www.cipav.org.co/lrrd/lrrd11/2/colu112.htm.
[40]
D. G. Cameron, “Tropical and subtropical pasture legumes,” Queensland Agricultural Journal, vol. 114, no. 2, pp. 110–113, 1988.
[41]
R. L. Clem, “Animal production from legume-based ley pastures in southeastern Queensland,” in Tropical Legumes for Sustainable Farming Systems in Southern Africa and Australia, A. M. Whitbread and B. C. Pengelly, Eds., pp. 136–144, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra, Australia, 2004.
[42]
R. D. Armstrong, B. J. Kuskopf, G. Millar, A. M. Whitbread, and J. Standley, “Changes in soil chemical and physical properties following legumes and opportunity cropping on a cracking clay soil,” Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 445–456, 1999.
[43]
R. D. Armstrong, K. McCosker, S. B. Johnson et al., “Legume and opportunity cropping systems in central Queensland. 1. Legume growth, nitrogen fixation, and water use,” Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 50, no. 6, pp. 909–924, 1999.
[44]
P. M. Maundu, G. W. Ngugi, and C. H. S. Kabuye, Traditional Food Plants of Kenya, National Museums of Kenya, English Press, Nairobi, Kenya, 1999.
[45]
C. V. Piper and W. J. Morse, The Bonavist, Lablab or Hyacinth Bean, Bulletin of the U.S. Department of Agriculture no. 318, USDA, Washington, DC, USA, 1915.
[46]
FAO Production Yearbook 2002, 56:83, 2002.
[47]
P. Zaidi, Drought Tolerance in Maize: Theoretical Considerations & Practical Implications, CIMMYT-Maize Program, Mexico DF, Mexico, 2002.
[48]
R. ？akir, “Effect of water stress at different development stages on vegetative and reproductive growth of corn,” Field Crops Research, vol. 89, no. 1, pp. 1–16, 2004.
[49]
P. W. Heisey and G. O. Edmeades, “Maize production in drought-stressed environments: technical options and research resource allocation,” World Maize Facts and Trends 1997/1998, 1999.
[50]
R. C. Muchow, “Comparative productivity of maize, sorghum and pearl millet in a semi-arid tropical environment II. Effect of water deficits,” Field Crops Research, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 207–219, 1989.
[51]
R. F. Grant, B. S. Jackson, J. R. Kiniry, and G. F. Arkin, “Water deficit timing effects on yield components in Maize,” Agronomy Journal, vol. 81, no. 1, pp. 61–65, 1989.
[52]
J. Bola？os and G. O. Edmeades, “The importance of the anthesis-silking interval in breeding for drought tolerance in tropical maize,” Field Crops Research, vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 65–80, 1996.
[53]
J. C. Vogel, A. Fuls, and A. Danin, “Geographical and environmental distribution of C3 and C4 grasses in the Sinai, Negev, and Judean deserts,” Oecologia, vol. 70, no. 2, pp. 258–265, 1986.
