This study presents soil system budgets of N, P and K in six contrasting cropping systems during 10 years of a long-term experiment in southeast Norway. The experiment included systems with arable cash-cropping and with mixed arable-dairy cropping (cash- and fodder crops), with organic and conventional management represented in both groups. All major nutrient inputs and outputs were measured or estimated. State of the art conventional cash-cropping appeared to be balanced in terms of N, whereas conventional mixed cropping had an N surplus. By contrast, less up to date conventional arable cash-cropping and all the organic systems showed indications of soil organic N depletion (negative N budgets). All the organic systems showed that mining of the soil P and K content occurs, whereas the conventional systems all had P and K surpluses. The results corresponded well with measured differences between systems in terms of ignition loss, P-AL, K-AL and K-HNO3 measured in 2009. This study shows that a fertile soil may be exposed to substantial mining of N, P and K over many years before it is detectable by traditional analyses, and that field nutrient budgeting is a feasible, but data-demanding, approach to detect such misbalances at an early stage. 1. Introduction In 1989, a large cropping system experiment, facilitated for measurements of runoff and leaching, was established at Apelsvoll in southeast Norway. Over the years, this experiment has provided data for many studies covering a range of different topics, including yields and yield quality (e.g., [1]), nutrient leaching and runoff losses (e.g., [2]), economic aspects (e.g., [3]), soil microbiology (e.g., [4]), soil physical and chemical properties (e.g., [5]), and the relation between food production and N losses [6]. Some major adjustments of the experimental design were made in 2000 [6]. In this overview, a synthesis of the results obtained after these changes are given for the major nutrient flows of N, P, and K, with focus on changes in topsoil nutrient pools, as affected by misbalances between nutrient inputs and outputs at field level. Numerous long-term experiments have shown that crop rotation and management affect soil fertility (e.g., [7–13]). However, considerable time is needed before identifiable changes in soil fertility emerge [14]. Nutrient budgets have been used widely in a range of farming systems to assess long-term sustainability (e.g., [15]), thus, supplementing soil measurements. In a discussion of uncertainties in nutrient budgets, Oenema et al. [16] distinguished between farm gate
References
[1]
R. Eltun, “The Apelsvoll cropping system experiment. III. Yield and grain quality of cereals,” Norwegian Journal of Agriculture, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 7–22, 1996.
[2]
A. Korsaeth and R. Eltun, “Nitrogen mass balances in conventional, integrated and ecological cropping systems and the relationship between balance calculations and nitrogen runoff in an 8-year field experiment in Norway,” Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, vol. 79, no. 2-3, pp. 199–214, 2000.
[3]
G. Lien, O. Flaten, A. Korsaeth et al., “Comparison of risk in organic, integrated and conventional cropping systems in Eastern Norway,” Journal of Farm Management, vol. 12, no. 7, pp. 385–401, 2006.
[4]
T. A. Breland and R. Eltun, “Soil microbial biomass and mineralization of carbon and nitrogen in ecological, integrated and conventional forage and arable cropping systems,” Biology and Fertility of Soils, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 193–201, 1999.
[5]
H. Riley, R. Pommeresche, R. Eltun, S. Hansen, and A. Korsaeth, “Soil structure, organic matter and earthworm activity in a comparison of cropping systems with contrasting tillage, rotations, fertilizer levels and manure use,” Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, vol. 124, no. 3-4, pp. 275–284, 2008.
[6]
A. Korsaeth, “Relations between nitrogen leaching and food productivity in organic and conventional cropping systems in a long-term field study,” Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, vol. 127, no. 3-4, pp. 177–188, 2008.
[7]
B. T. Christensen and A. E. Johnston, “Chapter 18 Soil organic matter and soil quality-Lessons learned from long-term experiments at Askov and Rothamsted,” Developments in Soil Science, vol. 25, no. C, pp. 399–430, 1997.
[8]
E. Ekeberg and H. Riley, “The long-term fertilizer trials at M？ystad, S:E: Norway,” SP Report 29, 100th Anniversary Workshop Askov Experimental Station, 1995.
[9]
N. A. Fettell and H. S. Gill, “Long-term effects of tillage, stubble, and nitrogen management on properties of a red-brown earth,” Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, vol. 35, no. 7, pp. 923–928, 1995.
[10]
P. R. Poulton, “The importance of long-term trials in understanding sustainable farming systems: the Rothamsted experience,” Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, vol. 35, no. 7, pp. 825–834, 1995.
[11]
W. R. Raun, G. V. Johnson, S. B. Phillips, and R. L. Westerman, “Effect of long-term N fertilization on soil organic C and total N in continuous wheat under conventional tillage in Oklahoma,” Soil and Tillage Research, vol. 47, no. 3-4, pp. 323–330, 1998.
[12]
J. Leifeld, R. Reiser, and H. R. Oberholzer, “Consequences of conventional versus organic farming on soil carbon: results from a 27-year field experiment,” Agronomy Journal, vol. 101, no. 5, pp. 1204–1218, 2009.
[13]
C. F. Drury, T. O. Oloya, D. J. McKenney, E. G. Gregorich, C. S. Tan, and C. L. vanLuyk, “Long-term effects of fertilization and rotation on denitrification and soil carbon,” Soil Science Society of America Journal, vol. 62, no. 6, pp. 1572–1579, 1998.
[14]
C. M. Penfold, M. S. Miyan, T. G. Reeves, and I. T. Grierson, “Biological farming for sustainable agricultural production,” Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, vol. 35, no. 7, pp. 849–856, 1995.
[15]
P. M. Berry, E. A. Stockdale, R. Sylvester-Bradley et al., “N, P and K budgets for crop rotations on nine organic farms in the UK,” Soil Use and Management, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 112–118, 2003.
[16]
O. Oenema, H. Kros, and W. De Vries, “Approaches and uncertainties in nutrient budgets: implications for nutrient management and environmental policies,” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 20, no. 1-2, pp. 3–16, 2003.
[17]
O. Oenema and M. Heinen, “Uncertainties in nutrient budget due to biases and errors,” in Nutrient Disequilibria in Agroecosystems: Concepts and Case Studies, E. M. A. Smaling, O. Oenema, and L. O. Fresco, Eds., pp. 75–97, CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 1999.
[18]
W. De Vries, J. Kros, O. Oenema, and J. De Klein, “Uncertainties in the fate of nitrogen II: a quantitative assessment of the uncertainties in major nitrogen fluxes in the Netherlands,” Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, vol. 66, no. 1, pp. 71–102, 2003.
[19]
A. Korsaeth, “Runoff and leaching losses of N, P, and K in the period 2001–2011 in a long-term experiment with conventional and organic crop rotations,” In press.
[20]
WRB, World Reference Base for Soil Resources, FAO, Rome, Italy, 1998.
[21]
H. Riley and R. Eltun, “The Apelsvoll cropping system experiment. II. Soil characteristics,” Norwegian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, vol. 8, pp. 317–333, 1994.
[22]
H. Egnér, H. Riehm, and W. R. Domingo, “Untersuchungen über die chemische Bodenanalyse als Grundlage für die Beurteilung de N？hrstoffzustandes der B？den. II,” Kungliga Lantbruksh？gskolans Annaler, vol. 26, pp. 199–215, 1960.
[23]
W. Aas, S. Solberg, S. Man？, and K. E. Yttrei, “Overv？king av langtransportert forurenset luft og nedb？r,” Report NILU OR 22/2007, Kjeller, Norway, 2007.
[24]
IPCC National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, “Agriculture, forestry and other land use,” in IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, H. S. Eggleston, L. Buendia, K. Miwa, T. Ngara, and K. Tanabe, Eds., vol. 4, chapter 11, pp. 1–11, IGES, Japan, 2006.
[25]
L. Larsson, M. Ferm, ？. Kasimir-Klemedtsson, and L. Klemedtsson, “Ammonia and nitrous oxide emissions from grass and alfalfa mulches,” Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 41–46, 1998.
[26]
K. A. Gomez and A. A. Gomez, Statistical Procedures for Agricultural Research, Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, USA, 2nd edition, 1984.
[27]
H. Riley and E. Ekeberg, “Effects of depth and time of ploughing on yields of spring cereals and potatoes and on soil properties of a morainic loam soil,” Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica - Section B Soil and Plant Science, vol. 48, no. 4, pp. 193–200, 1998.
[28]
R. Eltun, A. Korsaeth, and O. Nordheim, “A comparison of environmental, soil fertility, yield, and economical effects in six cropping systems based on an 8-year experiment in Norway,” Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, vol. 90, no. 2, pp. 155–168, 2002.
[29]
L. Bergstr？m, H. Kirchmann, H. Aronsson, G. Torstensson, and L. Mattsson, “Use Efficiency and Leaching of Nutrients in Organic and Conventional Cropping Systems in Sweden,” in Organic Crop Production—Ambitions and Limitations, H. Kirchmann and L. Bergstr？m, Eds., pp. 117–141, Springer, New York, NY, USA, 2008.
[30]
H. Riley and M. Bakkegard, “Declines of soil organic matter content under arable cropping in southeast Norway,” Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Section B, vol. 56, no. 3, pp. 217–223, 2006.
[31]
G. Torstensson, H. Aronsson, and L. Bergstrom, “Nutrient use efficiencies and leaching of organic and conventional cropping systems in Sweden,” Agronomy Journal, vol. 98, no. 3, pp. 603–615, 2006.
[32]
D. P. Heenan, W. J. McGhie, F. M. Thomson, and K. Y. Chan, “Decline in soil organic carbon and total nitrogen in relation to tillage, stubble management, and rotation,” Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, vol. 35, no. 7, pp. 877–884, 1995.
[33]
G. Uhlen, “Long-term effects of fertilizers, manure, straw and crop rotation on total-N and total-C in soil,” Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section B, vol. 41, pp. 119–127, 1991.
[34]
H. Steinshamn, E. Thuen, M. A. Bleken, U. T. Brenoe, G. Ekerholt, and C. Yri, “Utilization of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in an organic dairy farming system in Norway,” Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, vol. 104, no. 3, pp. 509–522, 2004.
[35]
E. Syv？salo, K. Regina, E. Turtola, R. Lemola, and M. Esala, “Fluxes of nitrous oxide and methane, and nitrogen leaching from organically and conventionally cultivated sandy soil in western Finland,” Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, vol. 113, no. 1–4, pp. 342–348, 2006.
[36]
D. J. Greenwood, F. Gastal, G. Lemaire, A. Draycott, P. Millard, and J. J. Neeteson, “Growth rate and % N of field grown crops: theory and experiments,” Annals of Botany, vol. 67, no. 2, pp. 181–190, 1991.
[37]
F. E. Khasawneh and E. C. Doll, “The use of phosphate rock for direct application to soils,” Advances in Agronomy, vol. 30, no. C, pp. 159–206, 1979.
[38]
M. Odlare, M. Pell, and K. Svensson, “Changes in soil chemical and microbiological properties during 4 years of application of various organic residues,” Waste Management, vol. 28, no. 7, pp. 1246–1253, 2008.
[39]
H. Bengtsson, I. ？born, S. Jonsson, I. Nilsson, and A. Andersson, “Field balances of some mineral nutrients and trace elements in organic and conventional dairy farming—a case study at ？rjebyn, Sweden,” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 20, no. 1-2, pp. 101–116, 2003.
[40]
J. Verloop, J. Oenema, S. L. G. Burgers, H. F. M. Aarts, and H. van Keulen, “P-equilibrium fertilization in an intensive dairy farming system: effects on soil-P status, crop yield and P leaching,” Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, vol. 87, no. 3, pp. 369–382, 2010.
[41]
H. Riley, “Long-term fertilizer trials on loam soil at M？ystad, south-eastern Norway: crop yields, nutrient balances and soil chemical analyses from 1983 to 2003,” Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Section B, vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 140–154, 2007.
[42]
L. Taiz and E. Zeiger, Plant Physiology, Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Mass, USA, 3rd edition, 2002.
[43]
S. Mathews, J. P. I. Tritschler, and S. C. Miyasaka, “Phosphorus management and sustainability,” in Grass for Daily Cattle, J. H. Cherney and D. J. R. Cherney, Eds., pp. 193–222, CABI International, Wallingford, UK, 1998.
[44]
S. D. Heming, “Potassium balances for arable soils in southern England 1986–1999,” Soil Use and Management, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 410–417, 2004.
[45]
L. Blake, S. Mercik, M. Koerschens et al., “Potassium content in soil, uptake in plants and the potassium balance in three European long-term field experiments,” Plant and Soil, vol. 216, no. 1-2, pp. 1–14, 1999.
[46]
I. ？born, Y. Andrist-Rangel, M. Askekaard, C. A. Grant, C. A. Watson, and A. C. Edwards, “Critical aspects of potassium management in agricultural systems,” Soil Use and Management, vol. 21, pp. 102–112, 2005.
[47]
A. F. ？gaard and S. Hansen, “Potassium uptake and requirement in organic grassland farming,” Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, vol. 87, no. 1, pp. 137–149, 2010.
[48]
Y. Andrist-Rangel, A. C. Edwards, S. Hillier, and I. ？born, “Long-term K dynamics in organic and conventional mixed cropping systems as related to management and soil properties,” Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, vol. 122, no. 4, pp. 413–426, 2007.
[49]
J. Holmqvist, A. F. ？gaard, I. ？born, A. C. Edwards, L. Mattsson, and H. Sverdrup, “Application of the Profile model to estimate potassium release from mineral weathering in Northern European agricultural soils,” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 20, no. 1-2, pp. 149–163, 2003.
[50]
H. Kuhlmann, “Importance of the subsoil for the K nutrition of crops,” Plant and Soil, vol. 127, no. 1, pp. 129–136, 1990.
[51]
L. E. De-Bashan and Y. Bashan, “Recent advances in removing phosphorus from wastewater and its future use as fertilizer (1997–2003),” Water Research, vol. 38, no. 19, pp. 4222–4246, 2004.
[52]
A.-G. Roer, A. Korsaeth, T. M. Henriksen, O. Michelsen, and A. H. Str？mman, “The influence of system boundaries on life cycle assessment of grain production in central southeast Norway,” Agricultural Systems, vol. 111, pp. 75–84, 2012.
