Recently reported declines in the population of Atlantic cod have led to calls for additional survey methods for stock assessments. In combination with conventional line-transect methods that may have ambiguities in sampling fish populations, Ocean Acoustic Waveguide Remote Sensing (OAWRS) has been shown to have a potential for providing accurate stock assessments (Makris N.C., et al. Science 2009, 323, 1,734–1,737; 54th Northeast Regional Stock Assessment Workshop (54th SAW) US Department of Commerce, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, 2012). The use of OAWRS technology enables instantaneous wide-area sensing of fish aggregations over thousands of square kilometers. The ratio of the intensity of scattered returns from fish versus the seafloor in any resolution cell typically determines the maximum fish detection range of OAWRS, which then is a function of fish population density, scattering amplitude and depth distribution, as well as the level of seafloor scattering. With the knowledge of oceanographic parameters, such as bathymetry, sound speed structure and attenuation, we find that a Rayleigh–Born volume scattering approach can be used to efficiently and accurately estimate seafloor scattering over wide areas. From hundreds of OAWRS measurements of seafloor scattering, we determine the Rayleigh–Born scattering amplitude of the seafloor, which we find has a ？ 2,4 frequency dependence below roughly 2 kHz in typical continental shelf environments along the US northeast coast. We then find that it is possible to robustly detect cod aggregations across frequencies at and near swim bladder resonance for observed spawningconfigurations along the U.S. northeast coast, roughly the two octave range 150–600 Hzfor water depths up to roughly 100 m. This frequency range is also optimal for long-rangeocean acoustic waveguide propagation, because it enables multimodal acoustic waveguidepropagation with minimal acoustic absorption and forward scattering losses. As the sensingfrequency moves away from the resonance peak, OAWRS detection of cod becomesincreasingly less optimal, due to a rapid decrease in cod scattering amplitude. In otherenvironments where cod depth may be greater, the optimal frequencies for cod detectionare expected to increase with swim bladder resonance frequency.
References
[1]
Northeast Fisheries Science Center. Ecology of the Northeast US Continental Shelf—Human Dimension. Technical Report;; NFSC, National Oceanic And Atmospheric Administration: Woods Hole, MA, USA, 2012.
[2]
Northeast Regional Office. 2011 Gulf of Maine Cod Baseline Assessment. Technical Report;; Northeast Regional Office, National Oceanic And Atmospheric Administration: Gloucester, MA, USA, 2012.
[3]
Northeast Fisheries Science Center. 55th Northeast Regional Stock Assessment Workshop (55th SAW): Assessment Summary Report. Ref Doc. 13-01;; National Marine Fisheries Service: Woods Hole, MA, USA, 2013; p. 41.
[4]
Myers, R.; Hutchings, J.; Barrowman, N. Hypotheses for the decline of cod in the North Atlantic. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Series 1996, 138, 293–308.
[5]
Hutchings, J. Spatial and temporal variation in the density of northern cod and a review of hypotheses for the stock’s collapse. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci 1996, 53, 943–962.
[6]
Kerry, J. Following Field Hearing, Kerry Presses Urgent Next Steps to Aid Fishermen; Press Release: Washington, D.C., USA, 2011.
[7]
Kerry, J. Kerry Urges New Cod Assessment, Preparations for Economic Relief; Press Release: Washington, D.C., USA, 2011.
[8]
Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Oceans, Atmosphere, Fisheries, and Coast Guard, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, First Session US Senate Committe on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, March 8 2011. Technical Report;; United States Senate, Govt. of United States: Washington, DC, USA, 2011.
[9]
Makris, N.C.; Ratilal, P.; Jagannathan, S.; Gong, Z.; Andrews, M.; Bertsatos, I.; Godo, O.R.; Nero, R.W.; Jech, J.M. Critical population density triggers rapid formation of vast oceanic fish shoals. Science 2009, 323, 1734–1737.
[10]
Makris, N.C.; Ratilal, P.; Symonds, D.T.; Jagannathan, S.; Lee, S.; Nero, R.W. Fish population and behavior revealed by instantaneous continental shelf-scale imaging. Science 2006, 311, 660–663.
[11]
Christensen, V.; Guenette, S.; Heymans, J.; Walters, C.; Watson, R.; Zeller, D.; Pauly, D. Hundred-year decline of North Atlantic predatory fishes. Fish Fish 2003, 4, 1–24.
[12]
Drinkwater, K. The response of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) to future climate change. ICES J. Mar. Sci. J. Conseil 2005, 62, 1327–1337.
[13]
Hutchings, J.; Reynolds, J. Marine fish population collapses: Consequences for recovery and extinction risk. BioScience 2004, 54, 297–309.
[14]
Ames, E. Atlantic cod stock structure in the Gulf of Maine. Fisheries 2004, 29, 10–28.
[15]
Sund, O. Echo sounding in fishery research. Nature 1935, 135, 953.
Misund, O. Underwater acoustics in marine fisheries and fisheries research. Rev. Fish Biol. Fisheries 1997, 7, 1–34.
[18]
Medwin, H.; Clay, C. Fundamentals of Acoustical Oceanography; Academic Press: Waltham, MA, USA, 1997.
[19]
Fish Stock Assessment 101 Series: Part 1Data Required for Assessing U.S. Fish Stocks; NOAA Fisheries: Silver Spring, MD, USA, 2012.
[20]
Gerlotto, F.; Soria, M.; Fréon, P. From two dimensions to three: The use of multibeam sonar for a new approach in fisheries acoustics. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci 1999, 56, 6–12.
[21]
Freon, P.; Misund, O.A. Dynamics of Pelagic Fish Distribution and Behaviour-Effects on Fisheries and Stock Assessment; Fishing News Books: Cambridge, UK, 1999.
[22]
Northeast Fisheries Science Center. 54th Northeast Regional Stock Assessment Workshop (54th SAW): Assessment Report. Ref Doc. 12–18; Northeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA: Woods Hole, MA, USA, 2012; p. 600.
[23]
L？vik, A.; Hovem, J.M. An experimental investigation of swim bladder resonance in fishes. J. Acoust. Soc. Am 1979, 66, 850–854.
[24]
Urick, R.J. Principles of Underwater Sound; McGraw Hill: New York, NY, USA, 1983.
[25]
Bucker, H.P. Wave propagation in a duct with boundary scattering (with application to a surface duct). J. Acoust. Soc. Am 1980, 68, 1768–1772.
[26]
Ivakin, A.N. A unified approach to volume and roughness scattering. J. Acoust. Soc. Am 1998, 103, 827–837.
[27]
Galinde, A.; Donabed, N.; Andrews, M.; Lee, S.; Makris, N.C.; Ratilal, P. Range-dependent waveguide scattering model calibrated for bottom reverberation in a continental shelf environment. J. Acoust. Soc. Am 2008, 123, 1270–1281.
[28]
Morse, P.M.; Ingard, K.U. Theoretical Acoustics; Princeton University Press: New Jersey, NJ, USA, 1986.
[29]
Andrews, M.; Chen, T.; Ratilal, P. Empirical dependence of acoustic transmission scintillation statistics on bandwidth, frequency, and range in New Jersey continental shelf. J. Acoust. Soc. Am 2009, 125, 111–124.
[30]
Gong, Z.; Andrews, M.; Jagannathan, S.; Patel, R.; Jech, J.M.; Makris, N.C.; Ratilal, P. Low-frequency target strength and abundance of shoaling Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) in the Gulf of Maine during the Ocean Acoustic Waveguide Remote Sensing 2006 Experiment. J. Acoust. Soc. Am 2010, 127, 104–123.
[31]
Goff, J.A.; Kraft, B.J.; Mayer, L.A.; Schock, S.G.; Sommerfield, C.K.; Olson, H.C.; Gulick, S.P.S.; Nordfjord, S. Seabed characterization on the New Jersey middle and outer shelf: Correlatability and spatial variability of seafloor sediment properties. Mar. Geol 2004, 209, 147–172.
[32]
Gurshin, C.; Howell, W.; Jech, J. Synoptic acoustic and trawl surveys of spring-spawning Atlantic cod in the Gulf of Maine cod spawning protection area. Fish. Res 2013, 141, 44–61.
[33]
Howell, W. Synoptic Acoustic and Trawl Surveys to Characterize Biomass and Distribution of the Spring Spawning Aggregations of Atlantic Cod in Lpswich Bay. FY2009 Northeast Consortium Collaborative Research Award # 111675; Technical Report; 2011.
[34]
Northeast Fisheries Science Center (NOAA). Northeast (NE) Multispecies Information Sheet Charter/Party and Recreational FishingTechnical report, National Oceanic And Atmospheric Administration. 2012.
[35]
Advanced Sampling Technologies Research Group: Surveys, Northeast Fisheries Science Center.
[36]
Love, R. Resonant acoustic scattering by swim bladder-bearing fish. J. Acoust. Soc. Am 1978, 64, 571–580.
[37]
Jagannathan, S.; Bertsatos, I.; Symonds, D.; Chen, T.; Nia, H.; Jain, A.; Andrews, M.; Gong, Z.; Nero, R.; Ngor, L.. others Ocean acoustic waveguide remote sensing (OAWRS) of marine ecosystems. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Series 2009, 395, 137–160.
[38]
Andrews, M.; Gong, Z.; Ratilal, P. High resolution population density imaging of random scatterers with the matched filtered scattered field variance. J. Acoust. Soc. Am 2009, 126, 1057–1068.
[39]
Collins, M.D. A split-step Pade solution for the parabolic equation method. J. Acoust. Soc. Am 1993, 93, 1736–1742.
[40]
Lawson, G.; Rose, G. The importance of detectability to acoustic surveys of semi-demersal fish. ICES J. Mar. Sci. J. Conseil 1999, 56, 370–380.
[41]
Mello, L.G.; Rose, G. Using geostatistics to quantify seasonal distribution and aggregation patterns of fishes: An example of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 2005, 62, 659–670.
[42]
van der Kooij, J.; Righton, D.; Strand, E.; Michalsen, K.; Thorsteinsson, V.; Sved？ng, H.; Neat, F.C.; Neuenfeldt, S. Life under pressure: Insights from electronic data-storage tags into cod swim bladder function. ICES J. Mar. Sci. J. Conseil 2007, 64, 1293–1301.
[43]
Rose, G.; Porter, D. Target-strength studies on Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) in Newfoundland waters. ICES J. Mar. Sci. J. Consei 1996, 53, 259–265.
[44]
Arnold, G.; Walker, M. Vertical movements of cod (Gadus morhua L.) in the open sea and the hydrostatic function of the swim bladder. ICES J. Mar. Sci. J. Consei 1992, 49, 357–372.
[45]
Harden Jones, F.; Scholes, P. Gas secretion and resorption in the swim bladder of the cod Gadus morhua. J. Comp. Physiol. B: Biochem. Syst. Environ. Physiol 1985, 155, 319–331.
[46]
Lawson, G.L.; Rose, G.A. Seasonal distribution and movements of coastal cod (Gadus morhua L.) in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland. Fish. Res 2000, 49, 61–75.
[47]
Brander, K. Spawning and Life History Information for North Atlantic Cod Stocks. Number 205;; International Council for the Exploration of the Sea Copenhagen: Denmark, 1994.
[48]
McQuinn, I.H.; Simard, Y.; Stroud, T.W.; Beaulieu, J.L.; Walsh, S.J. An adaptive, integrated “acoustic-trawl” survey design for Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) with estimation of the acoustic and trawl dead zones. ICES J. Mar. Sci. J. Consei 2005, 62, 93–106.
[49]
Gulf of Maine Area Census of Marine Life: Substrates.
[50]
Rowe, S.; Hutchings, J.A. Sound production by Atlantic cod during spawning. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc 2006, 135, 529–538.
[51]
Fudge, S.B.; Rose, G.A. Passive-and active-acoustic properties of a spawning Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) aggregation. ICES J. Mar. Sci. J. Consei 2009, 66, 1259–1263.
[52]
Pitcher, T. Behaviour of Teleost Fishes; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 1992; Volume 7.
[53]
Brawn, V.M. Sound production by the cod (Gadus callarias L.). Behaviour 1961, 18, 239–255.
[54]
Ratilal, P.; Makris, N.C. A unified model for reverberation and submerged target scattering in shallow water. J. Acoust. Soc. Am 2000, 107, 2920–2920.
[55]
Makris, N.C. The effect of saturated transmission scintillation on ocean acoustic intensity measurements. J. Acoust. Soc. Am 1996, 100, 769–783.
[56]
Chen, T.; Ratilal, P.; Makris, N.C. Mean and variance of the forward field propagated through three-dimensional random internal waves in a continental-shelf waveguide. J. Acoust. Soc. Am 2005, 118, 3560–3574.
[57]
Ratilal, P.; Makris, N.C. Mean and covariance of the forward field propagated through a stratified ocean waveguide with three-dimensional random inhomogeneities. J. Acoust. Soc. Am 2005, 118, 3532–3559.
[58]
Lough, R. Essential fish habitat source document: Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua, life history and habitat characteristics. NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-NE 2004, 190, 94.
[59]
Jensen, F.B.; Kuperman, W. A.; Porter, M. B.; Schmidt, H. Computational Ocean Acoustics; Springer Science+ Business Media: New York, NY, USA, 2011.
[60]
Clay, C.S.; Medwin, H. Acoustical Oceanography; Wiley: New York, USA, 1977.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Endangered and Threatened Species: Designation of Critical Habitat for Cook Inset Beluga Whale. Proposed Rules. Federal Register; Technical Report; 2011, 20179–20214.
[63]
Allen, J.; Peterson, M.; Sharrard, G.; Wright, D.; Todd, S. Radiated noise from commercial ships in the Gulf of Maine: Implications for whale/vessel collisions. J. Acoust. Soc. Am 2012, 132, EL229–EL235.
[64]
Arveson, P.; Vendittis, D. Radiated noise characteristics of a modern cargo ship. J. Acoust. Soc. Am 2000, 107, 118–129.
[65]
Erbe, C. Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Ornicus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Mar. Mamm. Sci 2002, 18, 394–418.
Medwin, H.; Blue, J.E. Sounds in the Sea: From Ocean Acoustics to Acoustical Oceanography; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2005.
[68]
Richardson, W. J.; Greene, C. R., Jr.; Malme, C. I.; Thomson, D.H. Marine Mammals and Noise; Academic Press Limited: London, UK, 1995.
[69]
Division of Marine Fisheries. Industry-Based Survey for Gulf of Maine Cod, Pilot Study, Appendix G: Ancillary Data: Species of Interest Distribution Maps. Technical Report;; Division of Marine Fisheries, Massachusetts Government: Boston, MA, USA, 2006.
[70]
Mayo, R.; Terceiro, M. Assessment of 19 Northeast Groundfish Stocks through 2004. Proceedings of the 2005 Groundfish Assessment Review Meeting (2005 GARM), Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Woods Hole, MA, USA, 15–19 August 2005; pp. 15–19.
[71]
State of Maine, Maine Department of Marine Resources. Interjurisdictional Fisheries Resource Monitoring and Assessment: Completion Report. Grant#NA05NMF4071035; Technical Report;; Maine Department of Marine Resources: Augusta, ME, USA, 2010.
[72]
Rayleigh, B.J.W.S. The Theory of Sound; Dover Publications: New York, NY, USA, 1945; Volume I and II.
