A thorough review of available literature was conducted to inform of advancements in mobile LIDAR technology, techniques, and current and emerging applications in transportation. The literature review touches briefly on the basics of LIDAR technology followed by a more in depth description of current mobile LIDAR trends, including system components and software. An overview of existing quality control procedures used to verify the accuracy of the collected data is presented. A collection of case studies provides a clear description of the advantages of mobile LIDAR, including an increase in safety and efficiency. The final sections of the review identify current challenges the industry is facing, the guidelines that currently exist, and what else is needed to streamline the adoption of mobile LIDAR by transportation agencies. Unfortunately, many of these guidelines do not cover the specific challenges and concerns of mobile LIDAR use as many have been developed for airborne LIDAR acquisition and processing. From this review, there is a lot of discussion on “what” is being done in practice, but not a lot on “how” and “how well” it is being done. A willingness to share information going forward will be important for the successful use of mobile LIDAR.
References
[1]
Duffell, C.G.; Rudrum, D.M. Remote Sensing Techniques for Highway Earthworks Assessment. Proceedings of GeoFrontiers 2005, Austin, TX, USA, 24–26 January 2005; pp. 1–13.
[2]
Kukko, A.; Kaartinen, H.; Hyypp？, J.; Chen, Y. Multiplatform mobile laser scanning: Usability and performance. Sensors 2012, 12, 11712–11733.
[3]
Barber, D.; Mills, J.; Smith-Voysey, S. Geometric validation of a ground-based mobile laser scanning system. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens 2008, 63, 128–141.
[4]
Cahalane, C.; McCarthy, T.; Mc Elhinney, C.P. Mobile Mapping System Performance—An Initial Investigation into the Effect of Vehicle Speed on Laser Scan Lines. Proceedings of Remote Sensing & Photogrammety Society Annual Conference “From the Sea-Bed to the Cloudtops”, Cork, Ireland, 1–3 September 2010.
[5]
Glennie, C. Reign of point clouds. A kinematic terrestrial LIDAR scanning system. Inside GNSS 2007, 2, 22–31.
[6]
Glennie, C. Rigorous 3D error analysis of kinematic scanning LIDAR systems. J. Appl. Geod 2007, 1, 147–157.
[7]
Glennie, C. Kinematic terrestrial light-detection and ranging system for scanning. Transp. Res. Rec 2009, 2105, 135–141.
[8]
Glennie, C.; Lichti, D.D. Static calibration and analysis of the velodyne HDL-64E S2 for high accuracy mobile scanning. Remote Sens 2010, 2, 1610–1624.
[9]
Haala, N.; Peter, M.; Kremer, J.; Hunter, G. Mobile LiDAR mapping for 3D point cloud collection in urban areas-a performance test. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci 2008, 37, 1119–1127.
[10]
Rieger, P.; Studnicka, N.; Pfennigbauer, M.; Zach, G. Boresight alignment method for mobile laser scanning systems. J. Appl. Geod 2010, 4, 13–21.
[11]
Burtch, R. Mobile Mappling Systems, Unpublished Lecture Notes, 2006. Available online: http://www.ferris.edu/faculty/burtchr/sure382/lessons.html (accessed on 10 June 2011).
[12]
Yen, K.S.; Akin, K.; Lofton, A.; Ravani, B.; Lasky, T.A. Using Mobile Laser Scanning to Produce Digital Terrain Models of Pavement Surfaces; AHMCT Research Center, UC Davis: Davis, CA, USA, 2010.
[13]
Puente, I.; González-Jorge, H.; Martínez-Sánchez, J.; Arias, P. Review of mobile mapping and surveying technologies. Measurement 2013, 47, 2127–2145.
[14]
SCHWARZ, K.P.; Chapman, M.A.; Cannon, M.W.; Gong, P. An integrated INS/GPS approach to the georeferencing of remotely sensed data. Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens 1993, 59, 1667–1674.
[15]
Shan, J.; Toth, C.K. Topographic Laser Ranging and Scanning: Principles and Processing; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2009.
[16]
Yousif, H.; Li, J.; Chapman, M.; Shu, Y. Accuracy enhancement of terrestrial mobile lidar data using theory of assimilation. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci 2010, 38, 639–645.
[17]
Ussyshkin, R.V.; Boba, M. Performance Characterization of a Mobile Lidar System: Expected and Unexpected Variables. Proceedings of ASPRS 2008 Annual Conference, Portland, OR, USA, 28 April–2 May 2008; 27.
[18]
Kingston, T.; Gikas, V.; Laflamme, C.; Larouche, C. An integrated mobile mapping system for data acquisition and automated asset extraction. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci 2006, 36, 5.
[19]
Yoo, H.J.; Goulette, F.; Senpauroca, J.; Lepere, G. Analysis and improvement of laser terrestrial mobile mapping systems configurations. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sen. Spat. Inf. Sci 2010, 38, 633–638.
[20]
Toth, C.K. R&D of Mobile LIDAR Mapping and Future Trends. Proceeding of ASPRS 2009 Annual Conference, Baltimore, MD, USA, 9–13 March 2009.
[21]
McCarthy, T.; Fotheringham, S.; Charlton, M.; Winstanley, A.; O’Malley, V. Integration of LIDAR and stereoscopic imagery for route corridor surveying. Mob. Map. Technol 2007, 37, 1125–1130.
Brenner, C. Extraction of Features from Mobile Laser Scanning Data for Future Driver Assistance Systems. In Advances in GIScience; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2009; pp. 25–42.
[24]
Knaak, T. TopoDOT Calibrated Image Requirements (#1001); Certainty 3D: Orlando, FL, USA, 2010. Available online: http://www.certainty3d.com/pdf/technotes/CalibratedImageReq.pdf (accessed on 10 June 2011).
[25]
Puttonen, E.; Lehtom？ki, M.; Kaartinen, H.; Zhu, L.; Kukko, A.; Jaakkola, A. Improved sampling for terrestrial and mobile laser scanner point cloud data. Remote Sens 2013, 5, 1754–1773.
[26]
Olsen, M.J.; Johnstone, E.; Driscoll, N.; Ashford, S.A.; Kuester, F. Terrestrial laser scanning of extended cliff sections in dynamic environments: Parameter analysis. J. Surv. Eng 2009, 135, 161–169.
[27]
ASPRS Standards Committee. ASPRS LIDAR Guidelines on Reporting Horizontal Accuracy, 2005. Available online: http://www.asprs.org/a/society/committees/standards/Horizontal_Accuracy_Reporting_for_LIDAR_Data.pdf (accessed on 14 August 2011).
[28]
POB Point of Beginning Laser Scanner Survey. 2010. Available online: http://laser.jadaproductions.net/default.php (accessed on 25 July 2011).
[29]
Yen, K.S.; Ravani, B.; Lasky, T.A. LiDAR for Data Efficiency; AHMCT Research Center: Davis, CA, USA, 2011.
[30]
Mendenhall, S. CE News; ZweigWhite: Fayetteville, AR, USA, 2011; pp. 42–43.
[31]
Zampa, F.; Conforti, D. Mapping with mobile lidar. GIM Int 2009, 23, 35–37.
[32]
Chang, J.C.; Tsai, M.K.; Findley, D.J.; Cunningham, C.M. Infrastructure Investment Protection with LiDAR; The National Academics: Washington, DC, USA, 2012.
[33]
Gr？fe, G. Kinematic 3D Laser Scanning for Road or Railway Construction Surveys. Proceedings of 1st International Conference on Machine Control & Guidance 2008, Zurich, Switzerland, 24–26 June 2008; pp. 24–26.
[34]
CTC & Associates. LIDAR Applications for Transportation Agencies. WisDOT Research Report; WisDOT: Madison, WI, USA, 2010. Available online: http://www.wisdotresearch.wi.gov/wp-content/uploads/tsrlidarapplications1.pdf (accessed on 12 July 2011).
[35]
Olsen, M.J.; Singh, R.; Williams, K.; Chin, A. Transportation Applications Subchapter. In Manual of Airborne Topographic Lidar; Renslow, M.S., Ed.; ASPRS: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2012; pp. 331–343.
[36]
Jaselskis, E.J.; Gao, Z.; Welch, A.; O’Brien, D. Pilot Study on Laser Scanning Technology for Transportation Projects. Proceedings of the 2003 Mid-Continent Transportation Research Symposium, Ames, IA, USA, 21–22 August 2003.
[37]
Vaaja, M.; Hyypp？, J.; Kukko, A.; Kaartinen, H.; Hyypp？, H.; Alho, P. Mapping topography changes and elevation accuracies using a mobile laser scanner. Remote Sens 2011, 3, 587–600.
[38]
Jaselskis, E.J.; Gao, Z.; Walters, R.C. Improving transportation projects using laser scanning. J. Constr. Eng. Manag 2005, 131, 377–384.
[39]
Jacobs, G. High definition surveying & 3D laser scanning uses in transportation. Professional Surveyor Magazine 2005.
[40]
Mabey, S. McKim & Creed Deploy TITAN for mobile LIDAR Scanning of Five Major Sections of North Carolina DOT Highways 2009; Ambercore: Houston, TX, USA, 2009.
[41]
Communications, M. Mobile LiDAR captures data for driving simulator. LIDAR News, 1 October 2011. Available online: http://www.LIDARnews.com/newsletter/Vol1No18.htm (accessed on 17 September 2013).
[42]
Clancy, S. The importance of Applied Control. LIDAR Magazine, 2011, 1, pp. 26–30. Available online: http://LIDARnews.com/emag/2011/vol1no2/index.html (accessed on 17 September 2013).
[43]
Vasquez, R. Endeavour moves through the cloud. LIDAR News, 2 November 2012. Available online: http://www.lidarnews.com/content/view/9298/199/ (accessed on 17 September 2013).
[44]
Whitfield, C.R. Feature: The power of mobile scanning. Professional Surveyor Magazine, April 2012. Available online: http://www.profsurv.com/magazine/article.aspx?i=71111 (accessed on 17 September 2013).
[45]
Singh, R. Engineering Automation, Key Concepts for a 25 Year Time Horizon. ODOT Report;; Oregon Department of Transportation: Salem, OR, USA, 2008.
[46]
Rybka, R. Down-to-Earth LiDAR. LIDAR News, 21 January 2011. Available online: http://lidarnews.com/dev/richard-rybka/5098-downto-earth-lidar (accessed on 17 September 2013).
[47]
Su, Y.Y.; Hashash, Y.M.A.; Liu, L.Y. Integration of construction as-built data via laser scanning with geotechnical monitoring of urban excavation. J. Constr. Eng. Manag 2006, 132, 1234–1241.
[48]
Tang, P.; Huber, D.; Akinci, B. Characterization of laser scanners and algorithms for detecting flatness defects on concrete surfaces. J. Comput. Civ. Eng 2011, 25, 31–42.
[49]
Kim, J.S.; Lee, J.C.; Kang, I.J.; Cha, S.Y.; Choi, H.; Lee, T.G. Extraction of geometric information on highway using terrestrial laser scanning technology. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci 2008, 37, 539–544.
[50]
Barry, K. BMW tests an autonomous vehicle. Wired, 30 August 2011. Available online: http://www.wired.com/autopia/2011/08/bmw-tests-an-autonomous-vehicle/ (accessed on 17 September 2013).
[51]
Coifman, B.; Redmill, K.; Thornton, D. Automating Parking Studies Using LIDAR Sensors: Proof of Concept. Proceedings of Transportation Research Board 91st Annual Meeting, Washington DC, USA, 22–26 January 2012.
[52]
Zhang, K.; Frey, H.C. Road grade estimation for on-road vehicle emissions modeling using light detection and ranging data. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc 2006, 56, 777–788.
[53]
Amadori, J. Getting the most from your LiDAR investment. LIDAR News, 29 April 2011. Available online: http://www.lidarnews.com/content/view/8346/136/ (accessed on 17 September 2013).
[54]
Herr, W. Unification of Roadway Surface Dimensional Measurements; Phoenix Scientific Inc.: Encinitas, CA, USA, 2010. Available online: http://www.phnx-sci.com/PPS/New_Paradigm_files/New%20Paradiam%202010_0121.pdf (accessed on 17 September 2013).
[55]
Tsai, Y.-C.J.; Li, F. Critical assessment of detecting asphalt pavement cracks under different lighting and low intensity contrast conditions using emerging 3D laser technology. J. Transp. Eng 2012, 138, 649–656.
[56]
Chang, J.R.; Chang, K.T. Application of 3 D laser scanning on measuring pavement roughness. ASTM J. Test. Eval 2006, 34, 83–91.
[57]
Olsen, M.J.; Chin, A. Inertial and Inclinometer Based Profiler Repeatability and Accuracy Using the IRI Model; ODOT: Salem, OR, USA, 2012.
[58]
Kumar, P. Road Features Extraction Using Terrestrial Mobile Laser Scanning System. Ph.D. Thesis; National University of Ireland Maynooth: Kildare, Ireland, 2012.
[59]
Lato, M.; Hutchinson, J.; Diederichs, M.; Ball, D.; Harrap, R. Engineering monitoring of rockfall hazards along transportation corridors: using mobile terrestrial LiDAR. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci 2009, 9, 935–946.
[60]
RIEGL Laser Scanner Powers Trail Surveys. 2011. Available online: http://www.3dlasermapping.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=193:-3d-laser-mapping-helps-reduce-motorway-congestion&catid=7:news&Itemid=39 (accessed on 3 September 2011).
[61]
Mettenleiter, M.; Obertreiber, N.; H？rtl, F.; Ehm, M.; Baur, J.; Fr？hlich, C. 3D Laser Scanner as Part of Kinematic Measurement Systems. International Conference on Machine Control Guidance, Zurich, Switzerland, 24–26 June 2008; 1, pp. 1–9.
[62]
Chmelina, K.; Jansa, J.; Hesina, G.; Traxler, C. A 3-d laser scanning system and scan data processing method for the monitoring of tunnel deformations. J. Appl. Geod 2012, 6, 177–185.
[63]
Kodagoda, K.R.S.; Wijesoma, W.S.; Balasuriya, A.P. CuTE: Curb tracking and estimation. IEEE Trans. Control Syst. Technol 2006, 14, 951–957.
[64]
Miller, P.; Mills, J.; Barr, S.; Lim, M.; Barber, D.; Parkin, G.; Clarke, B.; Glendinning, S.; Hall, J. Terrestrial laser scanning for assessing the risk of slope instability along transport corridors. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci 2008, 37, 495–500.
[65]
Olsen, M.J. In-situ change analysis and monitoring through terrestrial laser scanning. J. Comput. Civ. Eng 2013, 27, 203–335.
[66]
Kemeny, J. Application of Three-Dimensional Laser Scanning for the Identification, Evaluation, and Management of Unstable Highway Slopes. Transportation Pooled Fund Project TPF-5(166) Final Report;; Federal Highway Administration: Washington DC, USA, 2013.
[67]
Young, A.P.; Olsen, M.J.; Driscoll, N.; Flick, R.E. Comparison of airborne and terrestrial lidar estimates of seacliff erosion in. Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens 2010, 76, 421–427.
[68]
Bitenc, M.; Lindenbergh, R.; Khoshelham, K.; van Waarden, A.P. Evaluation of a LIDAR land-based mobile mapping system for monitoring sandy coasts. Remote Sens 2011, 3, 1472–1491.
[69]
Kersten, T.P.; Büyüksal？h, G.; Baz, ？b.; Jacobsen, K. Documentation of Istanbul Historic Peninsula by kinematic terrestrial laser scanning. Photogramm. Rec 2009, 24, 122–138.
[70]
Gong, J.; Zhou, H.; Gordon, C.; Jalayer, M. Mobile Terrestrial Laser Scanning for Highway Inventory Data Collection. Proceedings of International Conference on Computing in Civil Engineering, Clearwater Beach, FL, USA, 17–20 June 2012; pp. 545–552.
[71]
Becker, S.; Haala, N. Grammar supported facade reconstruction from mobile LIDAR mapping. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci 2009, 38, 229–234.
[72]
Jochem, A.; H？fle, B.; Rutzinger, M. Extraction of vertical walls from mobile laser scanning data for solar potential assessment. Remote Sens 2011, 3, 650–667.
[73]
Zhu, L.; Hyypp？, J.; Kukko, A.; Kaartinen, H.; Chen, R. Photorealistic building reconstruction from mobile laser scanning data. Remote Sens 2011, 3, 1406–1426.
[74]
McQuat, G.J. Feature Extraction Workflows for Urban Mobile-Terrestrial LiDAR DataM.Sc. Thesis. Queen’s University: Kingston, ON, Canada, 2011. Available online: http://qspace.library.queensu.ca/bitstream/1974/6530/1/Mcquat_Gregory_J_201105_MSc.pdf (accessed on 17 September 2013).
[75]
Zhou, L.; Vosselman, G. Mapping curbstones in airborne and mobile laser scanning data. Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf 2012, 18, 293–304.
[76]
Jaakkola, A.; Hyypp？, J.; Hyypp？, H.; Kukko, A. Retrieval algorithms for road surface modelling using laser-based mobile mapping. Sensors 2008, 8, 5238–5249.
[77]
Pu, S.; Rutzinger, M.; Vosselman, G.; Oude Elberink, S. Recognizing basic structures from mobile laser scanning data for road inventory studies. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens 2011, 66, S28–S39.
[78]
Novak, K. How we use LIDAR to inventory street lights in El Paso. Transmap Corporation Blog, 20 September 2011. Available online: http://www.transmap.com/?p=1260 (accessed on 17 September 2013).
[79]
Lehtom？ki, M.; Jaakkola, A.; Hyypp？, J.; Kukko, A.; Kaartinen, H. Performance analysis of a pole and tree trunk detection method for mobile laser scanning data. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci 2011, 38, 197–202.
[80]
Rutzinger, M.; Elberink, S.O.; Pu, S.; Vosselman, G. Automatic extraction of vertical walls from mobile and airborne laser scanning data. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci 2009, 38, 74–78.
[81]
Lin, Y.; Hyyppa, J. Geometry and intensity based culvert detection in mobile laser scanning point clouds. J. Appl. Remote Sens. 2010, 4, doi:10.1117/1.3518442.
[82]
Wang, H.; Cai, Z.; Luo, H.; Wang, C.; Li, P.; Yang, W.; Ren, S.; Li, J. Automatic Road Extraction from Mobile Laser Scanning Data. Proceedings of 2012 International Conference on Computer Vision in Remote Sensing (CVRS), Xiamen, China, 16–18 December 2012; pp. 136–139.
[83]
Knaak, T. Two perspectives on LIDAR technology market adoption. LIDAR News, 20 February 2012. Available online: http://www.lidarnews.com/content/view/8864/192/ (accessed on 17 September 2013).
[84]
Kaartinen, H.; Hyypp？, J.; Kukko, A.; Jaakkola, A.; Hyypp？, H. Benchmarking the performance of mobile laser scanning systems using a permanent test field. Sensors 2012, 12, 12814–12835.
[85]
Hiremagalur, J.; Yen, K.S.; Akin, K.; Bui, T.; Lasky, T.A.; Ravani, B. Creating Standards and Specifications for the Use of Laser Scanning in Caltrans Projects. AHMCT Rept.# UCD-ARR-07–06–30–01; AHMCT Research Center, UC Davis: Davis, CA, USA, 2007.
[86]
Graham, L. Mobile mapping systems overview. Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens 2010, 76, 222–228.
ASPRS Mobile Mapping Committee.. Unpublished PowerPoint Slides from Meeting on 2 May 2011;2011.
[89]
Vincent, R.; Ecker, M. Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) Technology Evaluation; Missouri Department of Transportation: Jefferson City, MO, USA, 2010.
[90]
Singh, R. Mobile LIDAR: Theory to Practice 2012. ASCE Workshop Course Notes, 2012.
[91]
Seibern, C. Managing Expectations for Mobile Mapping Solutions 2012SPAR Point Group; 2012.
[92]
Burns, S.; Jones, W.S. Capturing the Road of Tomorrow—UDOT’s Transportation Asset and Highway Safety Data Program 2012. Geospatial Transportation Mapping Association Webinar, 24 May 2012.
[93]
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Standards for Using Remote Sensing Technologies in Airport Surveys. AC 150/5300–17C; USDOT: Washington, DC, USA, 2011. Available online: http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/150_5300_17c.pdf (accessed on 17 September 2013).
[94]
Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC). Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards, Part 3: National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy; Federal Geographic Data Committee: Washington, DC, USA, 1998; p. 25. Available online: http://www.fgdc.gov/standards/projects/FGDC-standards-projects/accuracy/part3/chapter3 (accessed on 17 September 2013).
[95]
National Digital Elevation Program (NDEP). Guidelines for Digital Elevation Data. Version 1.0; 2004. Available online: http://www.ndep.gov/NDEP_Elevation_Guidelines_Ver1_10May2004pdf (accessed on 17 September 2013).
[96]
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Coastal Services Center. Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) Requirements; NOAA Coastal Services Center: Charleston, SC, USA, 2009.
[97]
Heidemann, H.K. Lidar Base Specification Version 1.0. US Geological Survey Techniques and Methods. Book 11; USGS: Sioux Falls, SD, USA, 2012. Chap. B4; p. 63. Available online: http://pubs.usgs.gov/tm/11b4/ (accessed on 17 September 2013).
[98]
California Department of Transportation. Terrestrial Laser Scanning Specifications. In Surveys Manual; CalDOT: Sacramento, CA, USA, 2011. Chapter 15.
[99]
Knaak, T. Developing Requirements for Mobile LIDAR Data (#1015). Tech Notes; Certainty 3D, Inc.: Orlando, FL, USA, 10 April 2012. Available online: http://www.certainty3d.com/pdf/technotes/MobileLIDARProjectRequirements.pdf (accessed on 11 August 2013).
[100]
Olsen, M.J.; Roe, G.V.; Glennie, C.; Persi, F.; Reedy, M.; Hurwitz, D.; Williams, K.; Tuss, H.; Squellati, A.; Knodler, M. Guidelines for the Use of Mobile LIDAR in Transportation Applications. TRB NCHRP Final Report 748;; TRB: Washington, DC, USA, 2013; p. 250.
