An efficient and low cost optical method for directly measuring the concentration of homogenous biological solutes is proposed and demonstrated. The proposed system operates by Fresnel reflection, with a flat-cleaved single-mode fiber serving as the sensor probe. A laser provides a 12.9 dBm sensor signal at 1,550 nm, while a computer-controlled optical power meter measures the power of the signal returned by the probe. Three different mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) lines were obtained, sub-cultured and trypsinized daily over 9 days. Counts were measured using a haemocytometer and the conditioned media (CM) was collected daily and stored at ？80 °C. MSCs release excretory biomolecules proportional to their growth rate into the CM, which changes the refractive index of the latter. The sensor is capable of detecting changes in the number of stem cells via correlation to the change in the refractive index of the CM, with the measured power loss decreasing approximately 0.4 dB in the CM sample per average 1,000 cells in the MSC subculture. The proposed system is highly cost-effective, simple to deploy, operate, and maintain, is non-destructive, and allows reliable real-time measurement of various stem cell proliferation parameters.
References
[1]
Choi, H.Y.; Park, K.S.; Park, S.J.; Paek, U.-C.; Lee, B.H.E.; Choi, S. Miniature fiber-optic high temperature sensor based on a hybrid structured Fabry–Perot interferometer. Opt. Lett. 2008, 33, 2455–2457.
[2]
De la Rosa, E.; Zenteno, L.A.; Starodumov, A.N.; Monzon, D. All-fiber absolute temperature sensor using an unbalanced high-birefringence Sagnac loop. Opt. Lett. 1997, 22, 481–483.
[3]
Yasin, M.; Harun, S.W.; Abdul-Rashid, H.A.; Kusminarto, Karyano; Ahmad, H. The performance of a fibre optic displacement sensor for different types of probes and targets. Las. Phys. Lett. 2008, 5, 55–58.
[4]
Lim, K.S.; Moghaddam, M.R.A.; Harun, S.W.; Ahmad, H. Tunable-Spacing Multiwavelength Yb-doped Fibre Laser (YDFL) based on temperature sensitive loop mirror. Laser Eng. 2010, 20, 39–45.
[5]
Lee, B. Review of the present status of optical fibre sensors. Opt. Fibre Technol. 2003, 9, 57–59.
[6]
Ahmad, H.; Chong, W.Y.; Thambiratnam, K.; Zulklifi, M.Z.; Poopalan, P.; Thant, M.M.M.; Harun, S.W. High sensitivity fiber Bragg grating pressure sensor using thin metal diaphragm. IEEE Sens. J. 2009, 9, 1654–1659.
[7]
Brogan, K.L.; Walt, D.R. Optical fiber-based sensors: Application to chemical biology. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 2005, 9, 494–500.
[8]
El-Sherif, M.; Bansal, L.; Yuan, J. Fiber optic sensors for detection of toxic and biological threats. Sensors 2007, 7, 3100–3118.
[9]
Grattan, K.T.V.; Sun, T. Fiber optic sensor technology: An overview. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2000, 82, 40–61.
[10]
Kersey, A.D. A review of recent developments in fibre optic sensor technologies. Opt. Fibre Technol. 1996, 2, 291–317.
[11]
Marquet, P.; Rappaz, B.; Magistretti, P.J.; Cuche, E.; Emery, Y.; Colomb, T.; Depeursinge, C. Digital holographic microscopy: A noninvasive contrast imaging technique allowing quantitative visualization of living cells with subwavelength axial accuracy. Opt. Lett. 2005, 30, 468–470.
[12]
Anand, A.; Chhaniwal, V.K.; Javidi, B. Imaging embryonic stem cell dynamics using quantitative 3-D digital holographic microscopy. IEEE Photon. J. 2011, 3, 546–554.
[13]
Kuo, Y.C.; Ho, J.H.; Yen, T.J.; Chen, H.F.; Lee, O.K. Development of a surface plasmon resonance biosensor for real-time detection of osteogenic differentiation in live mesenchymal stem cells. PLoS One 2011, 6, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022382.
[14]
Wood, M.F.; Ghosh, N.; Wallenburg, M.A.; Li, S.H.; Weisel, R.D.; Wilson, B.C.; Li, R.K.; Vitkin, I.A. Polarization birefringence measurements for characterizing the myocardium, including healthy, infarcted, and stem-cell-regenerated tissues. J. Biomed. Opt. 2010, 15, doi:10.1117/1.3469844.
[15]
Ramsden, J.J.; Horvath, R. Optical biosensors for cell adhesion. J. Recept. Signal Transduct. 2009, 29, 3–4.
[16]
Aref, A.; Horvath, R.; McColl, J.; Ramsden, J.J. Optical monitoring of stem cell-substratum interactions. J. Biomed. Opt. 2009, 14, doi:10.1117/1.3065541.
[17]
Robertson, J.A. Embryo stem cell research: ten years of controversy. J. Law Med. Ethics 2010, 38, 191–203.
Le Blanc, K. Immunomodulatory effects of fetal and adult mesenchymal stem cells. Cytotherapy 2003, 5, 485–489.
[20]
Batsali, A.K.; Kastrinaki, M.C.; Papadaki, H.A.; Pontikoglou, C. Mesenchymal Stem Cells derived from Wharton's Jelly of the Umbilical Cord: Biological properties and emerging clinical applications. Curr. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2013, 8, 144–155.
[21]
López, Y.; Lutjemeier, B.; Seshareddy, K.; Trevino, E.M.; Hageman, K.S.; Musch, T.I.; Borgarelli, M.; Weiss, M.L. Wharton's jelly or bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells improve cardiac function following myocardial infarction for more than 32 weeks in a rat model: A preliminary report. Curr. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2013, 8, 45–59.
[22]
Gronthos, S.; Brahim, J.; Li, W.; Fisher, L.W.; Cherman, N.; Boyde, A.; DenBesten, P.; Gehron Robey, P.; Shi, S. Stem cell properties of human dental pulp stem cells. J. Dent. Res. 2002, 81, 531–535.
[23]
Gronthos, S.; Mankani, M.; Brahim, J.; Robey, P.G.; Shi, S. Postnatal human dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) in vitro and in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2000, 97, 13625–13630.
[24]
Seo, B.-M.; Miura, M.; Gronthos, S.; Bartold, P.M.; Batouli, S.; Brahim, J.; Young, M.; Robey, P.G.; Wang, C.Y.; Shi, S. Investigation of multipotent postnatal stem cells from human periodontal ligament. The Lancet 2004, 364, 149–155.
[25]
Sonoyama, W.; Liu, Y.; Fang, D.; Yamaza, T.; Seo, B.-M.; Zhang, C.; Liu, H.; Gronthos, S.; Wang, C.-Y.; Shi, S.; Wang, S. Mesenchymal stem cell-mediated functional tooth regeneration in swine. PLoS One 2006, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000079.
[26]
Govindasamy, V.; Abdullah, A.N.; Ronald, V.S.; Musa, S.; Ab. Aziz, Z.A.C.; Zain, R.; Totey, S.; Bhonde, R.R.; Abu Kasim, N.H. Inherent differential propensity of dental pulp stem cells derived from human deciduous and permanent teeth. J. Endod. 2010, 36, 1504–1515.
[27]
Friedenstein, A.J.; Gorskaja, J.F.; Kulagina, N.N. Fibroblast precursors in normal and irradiated mouse hematopoietic organs. Exp. Hematol. 1976, 4, 267–274.
[28]
Collas, P. Programming differentiation potential in mesenchymal stem cells. Epigenetics 2010, 5, 476–482.
[29]
Nekanti, U.; Rao, V.B.; Bahirvani, A.G.; Jan, M.; Totey, S.; Ta, M. Long-term expansion and pluripotent marker array analysis of Wharton's Jelly-derived mesenchymal stem cells. Stem Cells Dev. 2010, 19, 117–130.
[30]
Xu, W.; Huang, X.G.; Pan, J.S. Simple fiber-optic refractive index sensor based on fresnel reflection and optical switch. IEEE Sens. J. 2013, 13, 1571–1574.
[31]
Hsiao, S.T.; Asgari, A.; Lokmic, Z.; Sinclair, R.; Dusting, G.J.; Lim, S.Y.; Dilley, R.J. Comparative analysis of paracrine factors expression in human adult mesenchymal stem cells derived from bone marrow, adipose and dermal tissue. Stem Cells Dev. 2012, 21, 2189–2203.
[32]
Yeun, C.T.; Rizon, M.; Shazri, M. Real-tme detection of face and iris. WSEAS Trans. Signal. Process. 2009, 6, 209–218.
[33]
Chuah, Z-M.; Paramesran, R.; Thambiratnam, K.; Poh, S.C. A two-level partial least squares system for non-invasive blood glucose concentration prediction. Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 2010, 104, 347–351.
