Dietary fibers (DF) may affect energy balance, an effect often ascribed to the viscous nature of some water soluble DF, which affect luminal viscosity and thus multiple physiological processes. We have tested the hypothesis that viscous linseed DF reduce apparent nutrient digestibility, and limit weight gain, in a randomized feeding trial where 60 male, growing, Wistar rats, with an initial weight of ~200 g, were fed different diets ( n = 10 per group): low DF control (C), 5% DF from cellulose (5-CEL), CEL + 5% DF from whole (5-WL) or ground linseed (5-GL), CEL + 5% DF from linseed DF extract (5-LDF), and CEL + 10% DF from linseed DF extract (10-LDF). Diets were provided ad？libitum for 21 days. Feed intake and faecal output were measured during days 17–21. Faecal fat excretion increased with increasing DF content and was highest in the 10-LDF group. Apparent fat digestibility was highest with the C diet (94.9% ± 0.8%) and lowest (74.3% ± 0.6%) with the 10-LDF diet, and decreased in a non-linear manner with increasing DF ( p < 0.001). Apparent fat digestibility also decreased with increased accessibility of DF (5-WL vs. 5-GL) and when the proportion of viscous DF increased (5-GL vs. 5-LDF). The 10-LDF resulted in a lower final body weight (258 ± 6.2 g) compared to C (282 ± 5.9 g), 5-CEL (281 ± 5.9 g), and 5-WL (285 ± 5.9 g) ( p < 0.05). The 10-LDF diet reduced body fat compared to 5-CEL ( p < 0.01). In conclusion, DF extracted from linseed reduced apparent energy and fat digestibility and resulted in restriction of body weight gain in growing rats.
References
[1]
Bazzano, L.A.; Song, Y.; Bubes, V.; Good, C.K.; Manson, J.E.; Liu, S. Dietary intake of whole and refined grain breakfast cereals and weight gain in men. Obes. Res. 2005, 13, 1952–1960, doi:10.1038/oby.2005.240.
[2]
Koh-Banerjee, P.; Franz, M.; Sampson, L.; Liu, S.; Jacobs, D.R., Jr.; Spiegelman, D.; Willett, W.; Rimm, E. Changes in whole-grain, bran, and cereal fiber consumption in relation to 8-y weight gain among men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 80, 1237–1245.
[3]
Liu, S.; Willett, W.C.; Manson, J.E.; Hu, F.B.; Rosner, B.; Colditz, G. Relation between changes in intakes of dietary fiber and grain products and changes in weight and development of obesity among middle-aged women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2003, 78, 920–927.
[4]
Wanders, A.J.; van den Borne, J.J.; de Graaf, C.; Hulshof, T.; Jonathan, M.C.; Kristensen, M.; Mars, M.; Schols, H.A.; Feskens, E.J. Effects of dietary fibre on subjective appetite, energy intake and body weight: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Obes. Rev. 2011, 12, 724–739.
[5]
Pittler, M.H.; Ernst, E. Guar gum for body weight reduction: Meta-analysis of randomized trials. Am. J. Med. 2001, 110, 724–730, doi:10.1016/S0002-9343(01)00702-1.
[6]
Jull, A.B.; Ni, M.C.; Bennett, D.A.; Dunshea-Mooij, C.A.; Rodgers, A. Chitosan for overweight or obesity. Cochrane Database. Syst. Rev. 2008, doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003892.pub3.
[7]
Pasquier, B.; Armand, M.; Castelain, C.; Guillon, F.; Borel, P.; Lafont, H.; Lairon, D. Emulsification and lipolysis of triacylglycerols are altered by viscous soluble dietary fibres in acidic gastric medium in vitro. Biochem. J. 1996, 314, 269–275.
[8]
Isken, F.; Klaus, S.; Osterhoff, M.; Pfeiffer, A.F.H.; Weickert, M.O. Effects of long-term soluble vs. insoluble dietary fiber intake on high-fat diet-induced obesity in C57BL/6J mice. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2010, 21, 278–284, doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2008.12.012.
[9]
Warrand, J.; Michaud, P.; Picton, L.; Muller, G.; Courtois, B.; Ralainirina, R.; Courtois, J. Structural investigations of the neutral polysaccharide of Linum usitatissimum L. seeds mucilage. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2005, 35, 121–125, doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2004.12.006.
[10]
Cui, W.; Mazza, G.; Biliaderis, C.G. Chemical structure, molecular size distributions, and rheological properties of flaxseed gum. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1994, 42, 1891–1895, doi:10.1021/jf00045a012.
[11]
Alzueta, C.; Rodriguez, M.L.; Cutuli, M.T.; Rebole, A.; Ortiz, L.T.; Centeno, C.; Trevino, J. Effect of whole and demucilaged linseed in broiler chicken diets on digesta viscosity, nutrient utilisation and intestinal microflora. Br. Poult. Sci. 2003, 44, 67–74, doi:10.1080/0007166031000085337.
[12]
Berggren, A.M.; Bj？rck, I.M.E.; Nyman, E.M.G.L.; Eggum, B.O. Short-chain fatty acid content and pH in caecum of rats given various sources of carbohydrates. J. Sci. Food Agric. 1993, 63, 397–406, doi:10.1002/jsfa.2740630405.
[13]
Kristensen, M.; Damgaard, T.M.; Sorensen, A.D.; Raben, A.; Lindelov, T.S.; Thomsen, A.D.; Bjergegaard, C.; Sorensen, H.; Astrup, A.; Tetens, I. Whole flaxseeds but not sunflower seeds in rye bread reduce apparent digestibility of fat in healthy volunteers. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 62, 961–967, doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602813.
[14]
Kristensen, M.; Savorani, F.; Christensen, S.; Engelsen, S.B.; Bügel, S.; Toubro, S.; Tetens, I.; Astrup, A. Flaxseed dietary fibers suppress postprandial lipemia and appetite sensation in young men. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. 2011, 26, 136–143.
[15]
Kristensen, M.; Jensen, M.G.; Aarestrup, J.; Petersen, K.E.; Sondergaard, L.; Mikkelsen, M.S.; Astrup, A. Flaxseed dietary fibers lower cholesterol and increase fecal fat excretion, but magnitude of effect depend on food type. Nutr. Metab. (Lond.) 2012, 9, 8, doi:10.1186/1743-7075-9-8.
[16]
Prosky, L.; Asp, N.G.; Furda, I.; DeVries, J.W.; Schweizer, T.F.; Harland, B.F. Determination of total dietary fiber in foods and food products: Collaborative study. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 1985, 68, 677–679.
[17]
Saxholt, E.; Christensen, A.T.; M？ller, A.; Hartkopp, H.B.; Hess, Y.; Hels, O. Danish Food Composition Databank, Revision 7; Department of Nutrition, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark: S？borg, Dermark, 2008.
[18]
National Research Council. Nutrient Requirements of Laboratory Animals, 4th ed. ed.; National Academy Press: Washington, DC, USA, 1995.
[19]
AOAC. Official Methods of Analysis, 15th ed. ed.; Association of Official Analytical Chemists Inc.: Arlington, VA, USA, 1990.
[20]
Hansen, B. Determination of nitrogen as elementary N, an alternative to Kjeldahl. Acta Agric. Scand. 1989, 39, 113–118, doi:10.1080/00015128909438504.
[21]
Bach Knudsen, K.E. Carbohydrate and lignin contents of plant materials used in animal feeding. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2009, 67, 319–338, doi:10.1016/S0377-8401(97)00009-6.
[22]
Lauridsen, C.; Christensen, T.B.; Halekoh, U.; Jensen, S.K. Alternative fat sources to animal fat for pigs. Lipid Technol. 2007, 19, 156–159, doi:10.1002/lite.200700051.
[23]
Ibrugger, S.; Kristensen, M.; Mikkelsen, M.S.; Astrup, A. Flaxseed dietary fiber supplements for suppression of appetite and food intake. Appetite 2012, 58, 490–495, doi:10.1016/j.appet.2011.12.024.
[24]
Artiss, J.D.; Brogan, K.; Brucal, M.; Moghaddam, M.; Jen, K.-L.C. The effects of a new soluble dietary fiber on weight gain and selected blood parameters in rats. Metabolism 2006, 55, 195–202, doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2005.08.012.
[25]
Woo, M.N.; Bok, S.H.; Lee, M.K.; Kim, H.J.; Jeon, S.M.; Do, G.M.; Shin, S.K.; Ha, T.Y.; Choi, M.S. Anti-obesity and hypolipidemic effects of a proprietary herb and fiber combination (S&S PWH) in rats fed high-fat diets. J. Med. Food 2008, 11, 169–178, doi:10.1089/jmf.2007.082.
[26]
Gonzalez-Esquerra, R.; Leeson, S. Studies on the metabolizable energy content of ground full-fat flaxseed fed in mash, pellet, and crumbled diets assayed with birds of different ages. Poult. Sci. 2000, 79, 1603–1607.
[27]
Petit, H.V. Digestion, milk production, milk composition, and blood composition of dairy cows fed whole flaxseed. J. Dairy Sci. 2002, 85, 1482–1490, doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(02)74217-3.
[28]
Dikeman, C.L.; Murphy, M.R.; Fahey, G.C., Jr. Dietary fibers affect viscosity of solutions and simulated human gastric and small intestinal digesta. J. Nutr. 2006, 136, 913–919.
[29]
Zhao, X.; Jorgensen, H.; Eggum, B.O. The influence of dietary fibre on body composition, visceral organ weight, digestibility and energy balance in rats housed in different thermal environments. Br. J. Nutr. 1995, 73, 687–699, doi:10.1079/BJN19950073.
[30]
Sklan, D.; Smirnov, A.; Plavnik, I. The effect of dietary fibre on the small intestines and apparent digestion in the turkey. Br. Poult. Sci. 2003, 44, 735–740, doi:10.1080/00071660310001643750.
[31]
Dvir, I.; Chayoth, R.; Sod-Moriah, U.; Shany, S.; Nyska, A.; Stark, A.H.; Madar, Z.; Arad, S.M. Soluble polysaccharide and biomass of red microalga Porphyridium sp. alter intestinal morphology and reduce serum cholesterol in rats. Br. J. Nutr. 2000, 84, 469–476.
[32]
Jensen, B.B.; Jorgensen, H. Effect of dietary fiber on microbial activity and microbial gas production in various regions of the gastrointestinal tract of pigs. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1994, 60, 1897–1904.
[33]
Bach Knudsen, K.E.; Wisker, E.; Daniel, M.; Feldheim, W.; Eggum, B.O. Digestibility of energy, protein, fat and non-starch polysaccharides in mixed diets: Comparative studies between man and the rat. Br. J. Nutr. 1994, 71, 471–487, doi:10.1079/BJN19940156.
[34]
Sembries, S.; Dongowski, G.; Mehrlander, K.; Will, F.; Dietrich, H. Dietary fiber-rich colloids from apple pomace extraction juices do not affect food intake and blood serum lipid levels, but enhance fecal excretion of steroids in rats. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2004, 15, 296–302, doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2003.12.005.
[35]
Wisker, E.; Bach Knudsen, K.E.; Daniel, M.; Feldheim, W.; Eggum, B.O. Digestibilities of energy, protein, fat and nonstarch polysaccharides in a low fiber diet and diets containing coarse or fine whole meal rye are comparable in rats and humans. J. Nutr. 1996, 126, 481–488.
