The recent U.S. Congressional mandate for creating drug-free learning environments in elementary and secondary schools stipulates that education reform rely on accountability, parental and community involvement, local decision making, and use of evidence-based drug prevention programs. By necessity, this charge has been paralleled by increased interest in demonstrating that drug prevention programs net tangible benefits to society. One pressing concern is precisely how to integrate traditional scientific methods of program evaluation with economic measures of “cost efficiency”. The languages and methods of each respective discipline don’t necessarily converge on how to establish the true benefits of drug prevention. This article serves as a primer for conducting economic analyses of school-based drug prevention programs. The article provides the reader with a foundation in the relevant principles, methodologies, and benefits related to conducting economic analysis. Discussion revolves around how economists value the potential costs and benefits, both financial and personal, from implementing school-based drug prevention programs targeting youth. Application of heterogeneous costing methods coupled with widely divergent program evaluation findings influences the feasibility of these techniques and may hinder utilization of these practices. Determination of cost-efficiency should undoubtedly become one of several markers of program success and contribute to the ongoing debate over health policy.
References
[1]
The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse. Shoveling Up II: The Impact of Substance Abuse on Federal, State, and Local Budgets; Columbia University: New York, NY, USA, 2009.
[2]
Donaldson, S.I.; Sussman, S.; MacKinnon, D.P.; Severson, H.H.; Glynn, T.; Murray, D.M. Drug abuse prevention programming: Do we know what content works? Am. Behav. Sci. 1996, 39, 868–883, doi:10.1177/0002764296039007008.
[3]
Ellickson, P.L. School-Based Substance Abuse Prevention: What Works, for Whom, and How? In Substance Abuse Prevention: A Multicultural Perspective; Kar, S.B., Ed.; Baywood Publishing Company: Amityville, NY, USA, 1999; pp. 101–129.
[4]
MacKinnon, D.P.; Weber, M.D.; Pentz, M.A. How do school-based drug prevention programs work and for whom? Drugs Soc. 1989, 3, 125–143, doi:10.1300/J023v03n01_06.
[5]
Flay, B.R.; Biglan, A.; Boruch, R.F.; Castro, F.G.; Gottfredson, D.; Kellam, S.; Li, P. Standards of evidence: Criteria for efficacy, effectiveness and dissemination. Prev. Sci. 2005, 6, 151–175, doi:10.1007/s11121-005-5553-y.
[6]
Hansen, W.B. Program evaluation strategies for substance abuse prevention. J. Prim. Prev. 2002, 22, 409–436, doi:10.1023/A:1015231724053.
[7]
McCaul, K.D.; Glasgow, R.E. Preventing adolescent smoking: What have we learned about treatment construct validity? Health Psychol. 1985, 4, 361–387, doi:10.1037/0278-6133.4.4.361.
[8]
Cuijpers, P. Effective ingredients of school-based drug prevention programs: A systematic review. Addict. Behav. 2002, 27, 1009–1023, doi:10.1016/S0306-4603(02)00295-2.
[9]
Botvin, G.J.; Baker, E.; Dusenbury, L.; Tortu, S.; Botvin, E.M. Preventing adolescent drug abuse through a multimodal cognitive-behavioral approach: Results of a three-year study. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 1990, 58, 437–446, doi:10.1037/0022-006X.58.4.437.
[10]
Hansen, W.B.; Graham, J.W.; Wolkenstein, B.H.; Lundy, B.Z.; Pearson, J.; Flay, B.R.; Johnson, C.A. Differential impact of three alcohol prevention curricula on hypothesized mediating variables. J. Drug Educ. 1988, 18, 143–153, doi:10.2190/FLQ5-9KNJ-92TH-WCDF.
[11]
MacKinnon, D.P. Analysis of Mediating Variables in Prevention Intervention Studies. Scientific Methods for Prevention Intervention Research; Cazares, A., Beatty, L.A., Eds.; U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, USA, 1994.
[12]
MacKinnon, D.P. Introduction to Statistical Mediation Analysis; Lawrence Erlbaum: Mahwah, NJ, USA, 2008.
[13]
Sobel, M.E. Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. Sociol. Methodol. 1982, 13, 290–312, doi:10.2307/270723.
[14]
Gordon, R.S. An operational classification of disease prevention. Public Health Rep. 1983, 98, 107–109.
[15]
Mrazek, P.J.; Haggerty, R.J. Reducing Risks for Mental Disorders; National Academy Press: Washington, DC, USA, 1994.
[16]
Ellickson, P.L.; McCaffrey, D.F.; Ghosh-Dastidar, B.; Longshore, D.L. New inroads in preventing adolescent drug use: Results from a large-scale trial of Project ALERT in middle schools. Am. J. Public Health 2003, 93, 1830–1836, doi:10.2105/AJPH.93.11.1830.
[17]
Lanza, S.T.; Rhoades, B.L. Latent class analysis: An alternative perspective on subgroup analysis in prevention and treatment. Prev. Sci. 2011, 14, 157–168, doi:10.1007/s11121-011-0201-1.
[18]
DeGarmo, D.S.; Eddy, J.M.; Reid, J.B. Evaluating mediators of the impact of the linking the interests of families and teachers (LIFT) multimodal preventive intervention on substance use initiation and growth across adolescence. Prev. Sci. 2009, 10, 208–220, doi:10.1007/s11121-009-0126-0.
[19]
Donaldson, S.I.; Graham, J.W.; Hansen, W.B. Testing the generalizability of intervening mechanism theories: Understanding the effects of adolescent drug use prevention interventions. J. Behav. Med. 1994, 17, 195–216, doi:10.1007/BF01858105.
[20]
McNeal, R.B.; Hansen, W.B.; Harrington, N.G.; Giles, S.M. How all stars works: An examination of program effects on mediating variables. Health Educ. Q. 2004, 31, 165–178, doi:10.1177/1090198103259852.
[21]
Orlando, M.; Ellickson, P.L.; McCaffrey, D.F.; Longshore, D.L. Mediation analysis of a school-based drug prevention program: Effects of project ALERT. Prev. Sci. 2005, 6, 35–46, doi:10.1007/s11121-005-1251-z.
[22]
Scheier, L.M.; Botvin, G.J.; Griffin, K.W. Preventive intervention effects on developmental progression in drug use: Structural equation modeling analyses using longitudinal data. Prev. Sci. 2001, 2, 91–112, doi:10.1023/A:1011543730566.
[23]
Shadish, W.R.; Cook, T.D.; Campbell, D.T. Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Generalized Causal Inference; Houghton Mifflin Company: Boston, MA, USA, 2002.
[24]
Chen, H.T. Theory-Driven Evaluations; Sage: Newbury Park, CA, USA, 1990.
[25]
Ringwalt, C.L.; Vincus, A.; Hanley, S.; Ennett, S.; Bowling, J.; Rohrbach, L. The prevalence of evidence-based drug use prevention curricula in U.S. middle schools in 2005. Prev. Sci. 2009, 10, 33–40, doi:10.1007/s11121-008-0112-y.
[26]
Drummond, M.F.; Stoddart, G.L.; Torrance, G.W. Methods for the Economic Evaluation of Health Care Programmes; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 1987.
[27]
French, M.T.; McGeary, K.A. Estimating the economic cost of substance abuse treatment. Health Econ. 1997, 6, 539–544, doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1050(199709)6:5<539::AID-HEC295>3.0.CO;2-0.
[28]
National Institute on Drug Abuse. Cost-Benefit/Cost-Effectiveness Research of Drug Abuse Prevention: Implications for Programming and Policy; Bukoski, W.J., Evans, R.I., Eds.; National Institute on Drug Abuse: Rockville, MD, USA, 1998.
[29]
Gandhi, A.G.; Murphy-Graham, E.; Petrosino, A.; Chrismer, S.S.; Weiss, C.H. The devil is in the details: Examining the evidence for “proven” school-based drug abuse prevention programs. Eval. Rev. 2007, 31, 43–74, doi:10.1177/0193841X06287188.
[30]
Wiehe, S.E.; Garrison, M.M.; Christakis, D.A.; Ebel, B.E.; Rivara, F.P. A systematic review of school-based smoking prevention trials with long-term follow-up. J. Adolesc. Health 2005, 36, 162–169, doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2004.12.003.
[31]
Miller, T.; Hendrie, D. Substance Abuse Prevention Dollars and Cents: A Cost-Benefit Analysis; Substance and Mental Health Services Administration: Rockville, MD, USA, 2008.
[32]
Swisher, J.D.; Scherer, J.; Yin, R.K. Cost-benefit estimates in prevention research. J. Prim. Prev. 2004, 25, 137–148, doi:10.1023/B:JOPP.0000042386.32377.c0.
[33]
Yates, B. Cost-inclusive evaluation: A banquet of approaches for including costs, benefits, and cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analyses in your next evaluation. Eval. Program Plan. 2009, 32, 52–54, doi:10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2008.08.007.
[34]
Banta, H.D.; Luce, B.R. Assessing the cost-effectiveness of prevention. J. Community Health 1983, 9, 145–165, doi:10.1007/BF01349877.
[35]
National Institutes of Health and the American College of Preventive Medicine. Preventive Medicine USA. A Task Force Report; Prodist: New York, NY, USA, 1976.
[36]
Chatterji, P.; Caffray, C.M.; Jones, A.S.; Lillie-Blanton, M.; Werthamer, L. Applying cost analysis methods to school-based prevention programs. Prev. Sci. 2001, 2, 45–55, doi:10.1023/A:1010086928908.
[37]
Aos, S.; Lieb, R.; Mayfield, J.; Miller, M.; Pennucci, A. Benefits and Costs of Prevention and Early Intervention Programs of Youth; Washington State Institute for Public Policy: Olympia, WA, USA, 2004.
[38]
Aos, S.; Phipps, P.; Barnoski, R.; Lieb, R. The Comparative Costs and Benefits of Programs to Reduce Crime; Washington State Institute for Policy: Olympia, WA, USA, 2001.
[39]
Caulkins, J.P.; Rydel, C.P.; Everingham, S.S.; Chiesa, J.; Bushway, S. An Ounce of Prevention, a Pound of Uncertainty: The Cost-Effectiveness of School-Based Drug Prevention Programs; RAND: Santa Monica, CA, USA, 1999.
[40]
Wolfson, A. The costs and benefits of cost-benefit analysis. Fall 2001, 145, 93–99.
[41]
Cohen, M.A.; Piquero, A.R. New evidence on the monetary value of saving a high-risk youth. J. Quant. Criminol. 2009, 25, 25–49, doi:10.1007/s10940-008-9057-3.
[42]
Rice, D.P.; Kelman, S.; Miller, L.S. Estimates of economic costs of alcohol and drug abuse and mental illness, 1985 and 1988. Public Health Rep. 1991, 106, 280–292.
[43]
Cartwright, W.S. Economic costs of drug abuse: Financial, cost of illness, and services. J. Subst. Abus. Treat. 2008, 34, 224–233, doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2007.04.003.
[44]
Griffin, K.W.; Botvin, G.J.; Nichols, T.R. Long-term follow-up effects of a school-based drug abuse prevention program on adolescent risky driving. Prev. Sci. 2004, 5, 207–212, doi:10.1023/B:PREV.0000037643.78420.74.
[45]
Griffin, K.W.; Botvin, G.J.; Nichols, T.R. Effects of a school-based drug abuse prevention program for adolescents on HIV risk behavior in young adulthood. Prev. Sci. 2006, 7, 103–112, doi:10.1007/s11121-006-0025-6.
[46]
Ellickson, P.L.; McCaffrey, D.F.; Klein, D.J. Long-term effects of drug prevention on risky sexual behavior among young adults. J. Adolesc. Health 2009, 45, 111–117, doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.12.022.
[47]
Spoth, R.; Clair, S.; Trudeau, L. Universal family-focused intervention with young adolescents: Effects on health-risking sexual behaviors and STDs among young adults. Prev. Sci. 2013, doi:10.1007/s11121-012-0321-2.
[48]
Mason, W.A.; Kosterman, R.; Hawkins, J.D.; Haggerty, K.P.; Spoth, R.L. Reducing adolescents’ growth in substance use and delinquency: Randomized trial effects of a parent-training prevention intervention. Prev. Sci. 2003, 4, 203–212, doi:10.1023/A:1024653923780.
[49]
Crowley, D.M.; Jones, D.E.; Greenberg, M.T.; Feinberg, M.E.; Spoth, R.L. Resource consumption of a diffusion model for prevention programs: The PROSPER delivery system. J. Adolesc. Health 2012, 50, 256–263, doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.07.001.
[50]
Payne, A.A.; Eckert, R. The relative importance of provider, program, school, and community predictors of the implementation quality of school-based prevention programs. Prev. Sci. 2010, 11, 126–141, doi:10.1007/s11121-009-0157-6.
[51]
Eisenberg, J.M. Clinical economics: A guide to the economic analysis of clinical practices. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1989, 262, 2879–2886, doi:10.1001/jama.1989.03430200123038.
[52]
Gold, M.R.; Siegel, J.E.; Russel, L.B.; Weinstein, M.C. Cost-Effectiveness in Health and Medicine; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 1996.
[53]
National Institute on Drug Abuse. Cost-Benefit/Cost-Effectiveness Research of Drug Abuse Prevention: Implications for Programming and Policy; Cartwright, W.S., Kaple, J.M., Eds.; U.S. Govt. Print Off.: Washington, DC, USA, 1991.
[54]
Kandel, D.B. Stages and Pathways of Drug Involvement: Examining the Gateway Hypothesis; Cambridge University Press: New York, NY, USA, 2002.
[55]
Lee, S.; Aos, S.; Drake, E.; Pennucci, A.; Miller, M.; Anderson, L. Return on Investment: Evidence-Based Options to Improve Statewide Outcomes, April 2012; Washington State Institute for Public Policy: Olympia, WA, USA, 2012.
[56]
Scheffler, R.M.; Paringer, L. A review of the economic evidence on prevention. Med. Care 1980, 18, 473–484, doi:10.1097/00005650-198005000-00001.
[57]
Scheier, L.M. Handbook of Drug Use Etiology: Theory, Methods, and Empirical Findings; American Psychological Association Books: Washington, DC, USA, 2010.
[58]
Scheier, L.M. Etiologic studies of adolescent drug use: A compendium of data resources and their implications for prevention. J. Prim. Prev. 2001, 22, 125–168, doi:10.1023/A:1012610002391.
[59]
Feinberg, M.E.; Chilenski, S.M.; Greenberg, M.T.; Spoth, R.L.; Redmond, C. Community and team member factors that influence the operations phase of local prevention teams: The PROSPER Project. Prev. Sci. 2007, 8, 214–226, doi:10.1007/s11121-007-0069-2.
[60]
Spoth, R.L.; Redmond, C.; Shin, C.; Greenberg, M.T.; Clair, S.; Feinberg, M.E. Substance use outcomes at 18 months past baseline: The PROSPER community-university partnership trial. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2007, 32, 395–402, doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2007.01.014.
[61]
French, M.T.; Dunlap, L.J.; Zarkin, G.A.; McGeary, K.A.; McLellan, A.T. A structure instrument for estimating the economic cost of drug abuse treatment: The drug abuse treatment cost analysis program (DATCAP). J. Subst. Abus. Treat. 1997, 14, 445–455, doi:10.1016/S0740-5472(97)00132-3.
[62]
Podgursky, M. Fringe benefits. Educ. Next 2003, 3, 71–76.
[63]
Hanley, S.; Ringwalt, C.; Vincus, A.A.; Ennett, S.T.; Bowling, J.M.; Haws, S.W.; Rohrbach, L.A. Implementing evidence-based substance use prevention curricula with fidelity: The role of teacher training. J. Drug Educ. 2009, 39, 39–58, doi:10.2190/DE.39.1.c.
[64]
Tricker, R.; Davis, L.G. Implementing drug education in schools: An analysis of the costs and teacher perceptions. J. Sch. Health 1988, 58, 181–185, doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.1988.tb05856.x.
[65]
Spoth, R.; Redmond, C. Research on family engagement in preventive interventions: Toward improved use of scientific findings in primary prevention practice. J. Prim. Prev. 2000, 21, 267–284, doi:10.1023/A:1007039421026.
[66]
Ennett, S.T.; Tobler, N.S.; Ringwalt, C.L.; Flewelling, R.L. How effective is drug abuse resistance education? A meta-analysis of Project DARE outcome evaluations. Am. J. Public Health 1994, 84, 1394–1401, doi:10.2105/AJPH.84.9.1394.
[67]
Office of National Drug Control Policy. The Economic Costs of Drug Abuse in the United States, 1992–2002; Executive Office of the President: Washington, DC, USA, 2004.
[68]
Bouchery, E.E.; Harwood, H.J.; Sacks, J.J.; Simon, C.J.; Brewer, R.D. Economic costs of excessive alcohol consumption in the U.S., 2006. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2011, 41, 516–524, doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2011.06.045.
[69]
Hodgson, T.A.; Meiners, M.R. Cost-of-illness methodology, a guide to current practices and procedures. Milbank Meml. Fund Q. Health Soc. 1982, 60, 429–462, doi:10.2307/3349801.
[70]
Harwood, H.J.; Fountain, D.; Livermore, G. The Economic Costs of Alcohol and Drug Abuse in the United States, 1992; National Institutes of Health: Rockville, MD, USA, 1998.
[71]
Spoth, R.L.; Guyll, M.; Day, S.X. Universal family-focused interventions in alcohol-use disorder prevention: Cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analyses of two interventions. J. Stud. Alcohol 2002, 63, 219–228.
[72]
Chang, J.B.; Lusk, J.L.; Norwood, F.B. How closely do hypothetical surveys and laboratory experiments predict field behavior? Am. J. Agric. Econ. 2009, 91, 518–534, doi:10.1111/j.1467-8276.2008.01242.x.
[73]
Arrow, K.J.; Solow, R.; Portney, P.R.; Learner, E.E.; Radner, R.; Schuman, H. Report of the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) panel on contingent valuation. Fed. Regist. 1993, 58, 4601–4614.
[74]
Cummings, R.G.; Taylor, L.O. Unbiased value estimates for environmental goods: A cheap talk design for the contingent valuation method. Am. Econ. Rev. 1999, 89, 649–665, doi:10.1257/aer.89.3.649.
Diamond, P.A.; Hausman, J.A. Contingent valuation: Is some number better than no number? J. Econ. Perspect. 1994, 8, 45–64, doi:10.1257/jep.8.4.45.
[77]
The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse. The Cost of Substance Abuse to America’s Health Care System; Report 1: Medicaid Hospital Costs; Columbia University: New York, NY, USA, 1993.
[78]
The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse. The Cost of Substance Abuse to America’s Health Care System; Report 2: Medicare Hospital Costs; Columbia University: New York, NY, USA, 1994.
[79]
National Association of Psychiatric Health Systems. 1992 Annual Survey: Final Report; National Association of Psychiatric Health Systems: Washington, DC, USA, 1993.
[80]
Kuklinski, M.R.; Briney, J.S.; Hawkins, J.D.; Catalano, R.F. Cost—Benefit analysis of Communities that care outcomes at eight grade. Prev. Sci. 2012, 13, 150–161, doi:10.1007/s11121-011-0259-9.
[81]
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Crime in the United States 2011. Available online: http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2011/crime-in-the-u.s.-2011/index-page (accessed on 15 August 2013).
[82]
Kenkel, D.S. Drinking, driving, and deterrence: The effectiveness and social costs of alternative policies. J. Law Econ. 1993, 36, 877–913.
[83]
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). Traffic Safety Facts 2010: Alcohol-Impaired Driving; NHTSA: Washington, DC, USA, 2012. Available online: http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/Pubs/811700.pdf (accessed on 15 August 2013).
[84]
Zarkin, G.A.; Dunlap, L.J.; Hicks, K.A.; Mamo, D. Benefits and costs of methadone treatment: Results from a lifetime simulation model. Health Econ. 2005, 14, 1133–1150, doi:10.1002/hec.999.
[85]
Zarkin, G.A.; Cowell, A.J.; Hicks, K.A.; Mills, M.J.; Belenko, S.; Dunlap, L.J.; Keyes, V. Benefits and costs of substance abuse treatment programs for state prison inmates: Results from a lifetime simulation model. Health Econ. 2012, 21, 633–652, doi:10.1002/hec.1735.
[86]
Chatterji, P. Illicit drug use and educational attainment. Health Econ. 2006, 15, 489–511, doi:10.1002/hec.1085.
[87]
Barnett, W.S.; Masse, L.N. Comparative benefit-cost analysis of the Abecedarian program and its policy implications. Econ. Educ. Rev. 2007, 26, 113–125, doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2005.10.007.
[88]
Belfield, C.R.; Nores, M.; Barnett, S.; Schweinhart, L. The High/Scope Perry Preschool Program: Cost-benefit analysis using data from the age-40 followup. J. Hum. Resour. 2006, 41, 162–190.
[89]
Durlak, J.A.; Wells, A.M. Primary prevention mental health programs for children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review. Am. J. Community Psychol. 1997, 25, 115–152, doi:10.1023/A:1024654026646.
[90]
Page, T. On the problem of achieving efficiency and equity, intergenerationally. Land Econ. 1997, 73, 580–596, doi:10.2307/3147247.
[91]
Arrow, K.; Crooper, M.; Eads, G.; Hahn, R.; Lave, L.; Noll, R.; Stavins, R. Is there a role for benefit-cost analysis in environmental, health, and safety regulation? Science 1996, 272, 221–222, doi:10.1126/science.272.5259.221.
[92]
Norgaard, R.B.; Howarth, R.B. Sustainability and Discounting the Future. In Ecological Economics: The Science and Management of Sustainability; Costanza, R., Ed.; Columbia University Press: New York, NY, USA, 1991; pp. 88–101.
[93]
Batie, S.S. Sustainable development: Challenges to the profession of agricultural economics. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 1989, 71, 1081–1101, doi:10.2307/1243090.
[94]
Dorfman, R.; Dorfman, N. Economics of the Environment; W.W. Norton: New York, NY, USA, 1993.
[95]
Cropper, M.; Portney, P. Discounting human lives. Resources 1992, 108, 1–4.
[96]
Botvin, G.J.; Griffin, K.W.; Diaz, T.; Scheier, L.M.; Williams, C.; Epstein, J.A. Preventing illicit drug use in adolescents: Long-term follow-up data from a randomized control trial of a school population. Addict. Behav. 2000, 5, 769–774.
[97]
Greenwood, P.W.; Model, K.E.; Rydell, C.P.; Chiesa, J. Diverting Children from a Life of Crime: Measuring Costs and Benefits; RAND: Santa Monica, CA, USA, 1996.
[98]
Miller, T.R.; Levy, D.T. Cost-outcome analysis in injury prevention and control: Eighty-four recent estimates for the United States. Med. Care 2000, 38, 562–582, doi:10.1097/00005650-200006000-00003.
[99]
Scheier, L.M. Primary Prevention Models: The Essence of Drug Abuse Prevention in Schools. In The American Psychological Association Addiction Syndrome Handbook Vol. 2,Recovery, Prevention and Other Issues; Schaffer, H.J., LaPlante, D.A., Nelson, S.E., Eds.; American Psychological Association: Washington, DC, USA, 2012; pp. 197–223.
[100]
Shepard, E.M., III. The Economic Costs of DARE; Institute of Industrial Relations: Syracuse, NY, USA. Available online: http://www.drugpolicy.org/docUploads/DAREfinalRP.pdf (accessed on 15 August 2013).
[101]
Rosenbaum, D.P.; Hanson, G.S. Assessing the effects of school-based drug education: A six-year multilevel analysis of Project D.A.R.E. J. Res. Crime Delinq. 1998, 35, 381–412, doi:10.1177/0022427898035004002.
[102]
MacKinnon, D.; Krull, J.L.; Lockwood, C.M. Equivalence of the mediation, confounding and suppression effect. Prev. Sci. 2000, 1, 173–181, doi:10.1023/A:1026595011371.
[103]
Hodgson, T.A.; Meiners, M.R. Guidelines for Cost-of-Illness Studies in the Public Health Service; Public Health Service Task Force on Cost-of-Illness Studies: Bethesda, MD, USA, 1979.
[104]
Tobler, N.S.; Stratton, H.H. Effectiveness of school-based drug prevention programs: A meta-analysis of the research. J. Prim. Prev. 1997, 18, 71–128, doi:10.1023/A:1024630205999.
Curran, P.J.; Hussong, A.M. Integrative data analysis: The simultaneous analysis of multiple data sets. Psychol. Methods 2009, 14, 81–100, doi:10.1037/a0015914.
[107]
Price, R.H.; Cowen, E.L.; Lorion, R.P.; Ramos-McKay, J. The search for effective prevention programs: What we learned along the way. Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 1989, 59, 49–58.
