Inhalation of asbestos resulting from living with and handling the clothing of workers directly exposed to asbestos has been established as a possible contributor to disease. This review evaluates epidemiologic studies of asbestos-related disease or conditions (mesothelioma, lung cancer, and pleural and interstitial abnormalities) among domestically exposed individuals and exposure studies that provide either direct exposure measurements or surrogate measures of asbestos exposure. A meta-analysis of studies providing relative risk estimates (n = 12) of mesothelioma was performed, resulting in a summary relative risk estimate (SRRE) of 5.02 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.48–10.13). This SRRE pertains to persons domestically exposed via workers involved in occupations with a traditionally high risk of disease from exposure to asbestos ( i.e., asbestos product manufacturing workers, insulators, shipyard workers, and asbestos miners). The epidemiologic studies also show an elevated risk of interstitial, but more likely pleural, abnormalities (n = 6), though only half accounted for confounding exposures. The studies are limited with regard to lung cancer (n = 2). Several exposure-related studies describe results from airborne samples collected within the home (n = 3), during laundering of contaminated clothing (n = 1) or in controlled exposure simulations (n = 5) of domestic exposures, the latter of which were generally associated with low-level chrysotile-exposed workers. Lung burden studies (n = 6) were also evaluated as a surrogate of exposure. In general, available results for domestic exposures are lower than the workers’ exposures. Recent simulations of low-level chrysotile-exposed workers indicate asbestos levels commensurate with background concentrations in those exposed domestically.
References
[1]
Wagner, J.C.; Sleggs, C.A.; Marchand, P. Diffuse pleural mesothelioma and asbestos exposure in the north western Cape Province. Brit. J. Ind. Med. 1960, 17, 260–271.
[2]
Newhouse, M.L.; Thompson, H. Epidemiology of mesothelial tumors in the London area. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1965, 132, 579–588.
[3]
Newhouse, M.L.; Thompson, H. Mesothelioma of pleura and peritoneum following exposure to asbestos in the London area. Brit. J. Ind. Med. 1965, 22, 261–269.
[4]
Vianna, N.J.; Polan, A.K. Non-occupational exposure to asbestos and malignant mesothelioma in females. Lancet 1978, 1, 1061–1063, doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(78)90911-X.
[5]
McDonald, A.D.; McDonald, J.C. Malignant mesothelioma in North America. Cancer 1980, 46, 1650–1656.
[6]
Grandjean, P.; Bach, E. Indirect exposures: The significance of bystanders at work and at home. Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assn. J. 1986, 47, 819–824.
[7]
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Report to Congress on Workers’ Home Contamination Study Conducted under the Workers’ Family Protection Act; United States; Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Cincinnati, OH, USA, 1995.
[8]
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Protecting Workers’ Families: A Research Agenda; United States Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Cincinnati, OH, USA, 2002.
[9]
Institut National de la Santé de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM). Effets sur la santé des principaux types d’exposition à l’amiante. INSERM: Paris, France, 1997.
[10]
Bourdès, V.; Boffetta, P.; Pisani, P. Environmental exposure to asbestos and risk of pleural mesothelioma: Review and meta-analysis. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 2000, 16, 411–417.
[11]
Donovan, E.P.; Donovan, B.L.; McKinley, M.A.; Cowan, D.M.; Paustenbach, D.P. Evaluation of take home (para-occupational) exposure to asbestos and disease: A review of the literature. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2012, 42, 703–731.
[12]
Sutton, A.J.; Jones, D.R.; Abrams, K.R.; Sheldon, T.A.; Song, F. Systematic reviews and meta-analysis: A structured review of the methodological literature. J. Health. Serv. Res. Policy 1999, 4, 49–55.
[13]
Andersson, T.; Ahlbom, A. Episheet software: Spreadsheets for the analysis of epidemiologic data. 2004. Available online: http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CC0QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fkrothman.hostbyet2.com%2FEpisheet.xls&ei=SeTyUZrgPOSqiALi2IDwDQ&usg=AFQjCNHeAwcg2RhXfkGM_b8RdX498JSs9A&sig2=U6MjH7LGvrV4FIowPto19g&bvm=bv.49784469,d.cGE (accessed on 23 October 2013).
[14]
Lieben, J.; Pistawka, H. Mesothelioma and asbestos exposure. Arch. Environ. Health 1967, 14, 559–563.
[15]
Rusby, N.L. Pleural manifestations following the inhalation of asbestos in relation to malignant change. J. Roy. Nav. Med. Serv. 1968, 54, 142–148.
[16]
Heller, R.M.; Janower, M.L.; Weber, A.L. The radiological manifestations of malignant pleural mesothelioma. Amer. J. Roentgenol. 1970, 108, 53–59, doi:10.2214/ajr.108.1.53.
[17]
Bittersohl, G.; Ose, H. The epidemiology of pleural mesotheliomas(in German). Z. Gesante Hyg. 1971, 17, 861–864.
[18]
Champion, P. Two cases of malignant mesothelioma after exposure to asbestos. Amer. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1971, 103, 821–826.
[19]
Knappmann, J. Observations made at post mortem examination of 251 cases of mesothelioma in Hamburg (1958–1968)(in German). Pneumonology 1972, 148, 60–65, doi:10.1007/BF02096147.
[20]
Greenberg, M.; Davies, T.A.L. Mesothelioma register 1967？1968. Br. J. Ind. Med. 1974, 34, 91–104.
[21]
Lillington, G.A.; Jamplis, R.W.; Differding, J.R. Conjugal malignant mesothelioma. N. Engl. J. Med. 1974, 291, 583–584.
[22]
Milne, J.E.H. Thirty-two cases of mesothelioma in Victoria, Australia: A retrospective survey related to occupational asbestos exposure. Br. J. Ind. Med. 1976, 33, 115–122.
[23]
Edge, J.R.; Choudhury, S.L. Malignant mesothelioma of the pleura in Barrow-in-Furness. Thorax 1978, 33, 26–30.
[24]
Li, F.P.; Lokich, J.; Lapey, J.; Neptune, W.B.; Wilkins, E.W. Familial mesothelioma after intense asbestos exposure at home. J. Amer. Med. Assn. 1978, 240, doi:10.1001/jama.1978.03290050057022.
Vianna, N.J.; Maslowsky, J.; Roberts, S.; Spellman, G.; Patton, R.B. Malignant mesothelioma: Epidemiologic patterns in New York State. N. Y. State J. Med. 1981, 81, 735–738.
[27]
Martensson, G.; Larsson, S.; Zettergren, L. Malignant mesothelioma in two pairs of siblings: Is there a hereditary predisposing factor? Eur. J. Resp. Dis. 1984, 65, 179–184.
[28]
Krousel, T.; Garcas, N.; Rothschild, H. Familial clustering of mesothelioma: A report on three affected persons in one family. Amer. J. Prev. Med. 1986, 2, 186–188.
Kane, M.J.; Chahinian, A.P.; Holland, J.F. Malignant mesothelioma in young adults. Cancer 1990, 65, 1449–1455.
[31]
Konetzke, G.W.; Beck, B.; Mehnert, W.H. Uber berufliche und auberberufliche asbestwirkungen—Remarks on occupational and non-occupational effects of asbestos. Pneumologie 1990, 44, 858–861.
[32]
Oern, S.; Odden, S.; Osnes, M. Familial clustering of asbestos-related disease(in Norwegian). Tidssker Nor Laegeforen 1991, 111, 1099–1101.
[33]
Chellini, E.; Fornaciai, G.; Merler, E.; Paci, E.; Costantini, A.S.; Silvestri, S.; Zappa, M.; Buiatti, E. Pleural malignant mesothelioma in Tuscany, Italy (1970？1988): II. Identification of occupational exposure to asbestos. Amer. J. Ind. Med. 1997, 21, 577–585.
[34]
Seniori-Costantini, A.; Chellini, E. The experience of the mesothelioma registry of Tuscany in assessing health hazard associated with asbestos exposure. Med. Lav. 1997, 88, 310–315.
[35]
Dodoli, D.; del Nevo, M.; Fiumalbi, C.; Iaia, T.E.; Cristaudo, A.; Comba, P.; Viti, C.; Battista, G. Environmental household exposures to asbestos and occurrence of pleural mesothelioma. Amer. J. Ind. Med. 1992, 21, 681–687.
[36]
Giarelli, L.; Bianchi, C.; Grandi, G. Malignant mesothelioma of the pleura in Trieste, Italy. Amer. J. Prev. Med. 1992, 22, 521–530.
[37]
Schneider, J.; Straif, K.; Woitowitz, H.J. Pleural mesothelioma and household asbestos exposure. Rev. Environ. Health 1966, 11, 65–70.
[38]
Rees, D.; Goodman, K.; Fourie, E.; Chapman, R.; Blignaut, C.; Bachmann, M.O.; Myers, J. Asbestos exposure and mesothelioma in South Africa. S. Afr. Med. J. 1990, 89, 627–634.
[39]
Ascoli, V.; Fantini, F.; Carnovale, S.C.; Blasetti, F.; Bruno, C.; di Domenicantonio, R.; lo Presti, E.; Pasetto, R.; Nardi, F.; Comba, P. Malignant mesothelioma in the industrial area of Colleferro. Med. Lav. 2000, 91, 547–564.
[40]
Barbieri, P.G.; Lombardi, S.; Candela, A.; Pezzotti, C.; Binda, I. Incidence of malignant mesothelioma (1980–1999) and asbestos exposure in 190 cases diagnosed in the population of the Province of Brescia. Med. Lav. 2001, 92, 249–262.
[41]
Bianchi, C.; Brollo, A.; Ramani, L.; Bianchi, T.; Giarelli, L. Asbestos exposure in malignant mesothelioma of the pleura: A survey of 557 cases. Ind. Health 2001, 39, 161–167.
[42]
Mangone, L.; Romanelli, A.; Campari, C.; Candela, S. Malignant mesothelioma in Emilia-Romagna: Incidence and asbestos exposure. Epidemiol. Prev. 2002, 26, 124–129.
[43]
Miller, A. Mesothelioma in household members of asbestos-exposed workers: 32 United States cases since 1990. Amer. J. Ind. Med. 2005, 47, 458–462, doi:10.1002/ajim.20167.
[44]
Bianchi, C.; Bianchi, T.; Tommasi, M. Mesothelioma of the pleura in the province of Trieste. Med. Lav. 2007, 98, 374–380.
[45]
Ashcroft, T.; Heppelston, A.G. Mesothelioma and asbestos on tyneside. In Pneumoconiosis: Proceedings of the International Conference, Johannesburg 1969; Shapiro, H.A., Ed.; Oxford University Press: Cape Town, South Africa, 1970; pp. 177–179.
[46]
McEwen, J.; Finlayson, A.; Mair, A.; Gibson, A.A. Asbestos and mesothelioma in Scotland: An epidemiological study. Int. Arch. Arbeitsmed. 1971, 28, 301–311.
[47]
Rubino, G.F.; Scansetti, G.; Donna, A.; Palestro, G. Epidmilogy of pleural mesotheioma in north-western Italy (Piedmont). Br. J. Ind. Med. 1972, 29, 436–442.
[48]
Muscat, J.E.; Wynder, E.L. Cigarette smoking, asbestos exposure, and malignant mesothelioma. Cancer Res. 1991, 51, 2263–2267.
Howel, D.; Arblaster, L.; Sinburne, L.; Schweiger, M.; Renvoize, E.; Hatton, P. Routes of asbestos exposure and the development of mesothelioma in an English region. Occup. Environ. Med. 1997, 54, 403–409.
[51]
Case, B.W.; Camus, M.; Richardson, L.; Parent, M.E.; Desy, M.; Siemiatycki, J. Preliminary findings for pleural mesothelioma among women in the Quebec chrysotile mining regions. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 2002, 46, S128–S131.
[52]
Magnani, C.; Agudo, A.; Gonzalez, C.A.; Andrion, A.; Calleja, A.; Chellini, E.; Dalmasso, P.; Escolar, A.; Hernandez, S.; Lvaldi, C.; et al. Multicentric study on malignant pleural mesothelioma and non-occupational exposure to asbestos. Br. J. Cancer 2000, 83, 104–111.
[53]
Welch, L.S.; Acherman, Y.I.Z.; Haile, E.; Sokas, R.K.; Sugarbaker, P.H. Asbestos and peritoneal mesothelioma among college-educated men. Int. J. Occup. Environ. Health 2005, 11, 254–258.
[54]
Maule, M.M.; Magnani, C.; Dalmasso, P.; Mirabelli, D.; Merletti, F.; Biggeri, A. Modeling mesothelioma risk associated with environmental asbestos exposure. Environ. Health Perspect. 2007, 115, 1066–1071.
[55]
Magnani, C.; Dalmasso, P.; Biggeri, A.; Ivaldi, C.; Mirabelli, D.; Terracini, B. Increased risk of malignant mesothelioma of the pleura after residential or domestic exposure to asbestos: A case-control study in Casale Monferrato, Italy. Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109, 915–919.
[56]
Rake, C.; Gilham, C.; Hatch, J.; Darnson, A.; Hodgson, J.; Peto, J. Occupational, domestic and environmental mesothelioma risks in the British population: A case-control study. Br. J. Cancer 2009, 100, 1175–1183.
[57]
Peto, J.; Rake, C.; Gilham, C.; Hatch, J. Occupational, Domestic and Environmental Mesothelioma Risks in Britain: A Case-Control Study; Health and Safety Executive: Norwich, UK, 2009.
[58]
Anderson, H.A. Family contact exposure. In Proceedings of the World Symposium on Asbestos; Canadian Asbestos Information Centre: Montreal, Canada, 1982; pp. 349–362.
[59]
Joubert, L.; Seidman, H.; Selikoff, I.J. Mortality experience of family contacts of asbestos factory workers. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1991, 643, 416–418.
[60]
Anderson, H.A.; Lilis, R.; Daum, S.M.; Selikoff, I.J. Asbestosis among household contacts of asbestos factory workers. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1979, 330, 387–399.
[61]
Anderson, H.A.; Lilis, R.; Daum, S.M.; Fischbein, A.S.; Selikoff, I.J. Household-contact asbestos neoplastic risk. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1976, 271, 311–323.
[62]
Selikoff, I.J. Household risks with inorganic fibers. Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med. 1981, 57, 947–961.
[63]
Ferrante, D.; Bertolotti, M.; Todesco, A.; Mirabelli, D.; Terracini, B.; Magnani, C. Cancer mortality and incidence of mesothelioma in a cohort of wives of asbestos workers in Casale Monferrato, Italy. Environ. Health Perspect. 2007, 115, 1401–1405.
[64]
Magnani, C.; Terracini, B.; Ivaldi, C.; Botta, M.; Budel, P.; Mancini, A.; Zanetti, R. A cohort study on mortality among wives of workers in the asbestos cement industry in Casale Monferrato, Italy. Br. J. Ind. Med. 1993, 50, 779–784.
[65]
Reid, A.; Heyworth, J.; de Klerk, N.H.; Musk, B. Cancer incidence among women and girls environmentally and occupationally exposed to blue asbestos at Wittenoom, Western Australia. Int. J. Cancer 2008, 122, 2337–2344.
[66]
Hansen, J.; de Klerk, N.H.; Eccles, J.L.; Musk, A.W.; Hobbs, M.S. Malignant mesothelioma after environmental exposure to blue asbestos. Int. J. Cancer 1993, 54, 578–581.
[67]
Yazicioglu, S.; Ilcayto, R.; Balci, K.; Sayli, B.S.; Yorulmaz, B. Pleural calcification, pleural mesotheliomas, and bronchial cancers caused by tremolite dust. Thorax 1980, 35, 564–569.
[68]
Navratil, M.; Trippe, F. Prevalence of pleural calcification in persons exposed to asbestos dust, and in the general population in the same district. Environ. Res. 1972, 5, 210–216.
[69]
Kilburn, K.H.; Warshaw, R.; Thornton, J.C. Asbestos diseases and pulmonary symptoms and signs in shipyard workers and their families in Los Angeles. Arch. Int. Med. 1986, 146, 2213–2220.
[70]
Sider, L.; Holland, E.A.; Davis, T.M.; Cugell, D.W. Changes on radiographs of wives of workers exposed to asbestos. Radiology 1987, 164, 723–726.
[71]
Peipins, L.A.; Lewin, M.; Campolucci, S.; Lybarger, J.A.; Miller, A.; Middleton, D.; Weis, C.; Spence, M.; Black, B.; Kapil, V. Radiographic abnormalities and exposure to asbestos-contaminated vermiculite in the community of Libby, Montana, USA. Environ. Health Perspect. 2003, 111, 1753–1759.
[72]
Hodgson, J.T.; Darnton, A. The quantitative risks of mesothelioma and lung cancer in relation to asbestos exposure. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 2000, 44, 565–601.
[73]
Yarborough, C.M. Chrysotile as a cause of mesothelioma: An assessment based on epidemiology. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2006, 36, 165–187.
[74]
Berman, W.D.; Crump, K.S. A meta-analysis of asbestos-related cancer risk that addresses fiber size and mineral type. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2008, 38, S49–S73.
[75]
Berman, W.D.; Crump, K.S. Update of potency factors for asbestos-related lung cancer and mesothelioma. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2008, 38, S1–S47.
[76]
Kiviluoto, T. Pleural plaques and asbestos: Further observations on endemic and other nonoccupational asbestosis. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1965, 132, 235–239.
[77]
Dalquen, P.; Hinz, I.; Dabbert, A.F. Pleural plaques, asbestosis and exposure to asbestos: An epidemiological study from the Hamburg Area. Pneumonologie 1970, 143, 23–42.
[78]
Ebihara, I. Asbestos related pulmonary disorders in Japan: Occupational exposure, contact in the home and air pollutional exposure to asbestos in Japanese urban districts. Rodo Kagaku (Journal of Science of Labour—Japanese Edition) 1981, 57, 363–396.
[79]
Lander, F.; Viskum, B. The occurrence of benign pulmonary changes in the spouses of previously employed asbestos workers. Ugeskr. Laeg. 1985, 147, 1805–1806.
[80]
Bianchi, C.; Brollo, A.; Ramani, L.; Berte, R. Exposure to asbestos in Monfalcone, Italy. A necropsy-based study. Autopsy in Epidemiology and Medical Research; Ribloi, E., Delendi, M., Eds.; International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC): Lyon, France, 1991; pp. 127–140.
[81]
Nicholson, W.J.; Rohl, A.N.; Weisman, I.; Selikoff, I.J. Environmental asbestos concentrations in the United States. Biological Effects of Mineral Fibres; Wagner, J.C., Ed.; International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC): Lyon, France, 1980; Volume 2, pp. 823–827.
[82]
Selikoff, I.J.; Lee, D.H.K. Asbestos and Disease; Academic Press: New York, NY, USA, 1978.
[83]
World Health Organization (WHO). Asbestos and Other Natural Mineral Fibres; World Health Organisation: Geneva, Swizerland, 1986.
[84]
Committee on Nonoccupational Health Risks of Asbestiform Fibers; Board on Toxicology and Environmental Health Hazards; Commission on Life Sciences; National Research Council (NRC). Asbestiform. Fibers: Nonoccupational Health Risks; National Academy Press: Washington, DC, USA, 1984.
[85]
Sawyer, R.N. Asbestos exposure in a Yale building. Environ. Res. 1977, 13, 146–169.
[86]
Seixas, N.; Ordin, D. Health Hazard Evaluation Report; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH): Cincinnati, OH, USA, 1986.
[87]
Driscoll, R.J.; Elliott, L.J. Health Hazard Evaluation Report; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH): Trenton, MI, USA, 1990.
[88]
Jiang, G.C.T.; Madl, A.K.; Ingmundson, K.J.; Murbach, D.M.; Fehling, K.A.; Paustenbach, D.J.; Finley, B.L. A study of airborne chrysotile concentrations associated with handling, unpacking, and repacking boxes of automobile clutch discs. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2008, 51, 87–97.
[89]
Madl, A.K.; Scott, L.L.; Murbach, D.M.; Fehling, K.A.; Finley, B.L.; Paustenbach, D.J. Exposure to chrysotile asbestos associated with unpacking and repacking boxes of automobile brake pads and shoes. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 2008, 52, 463–479.
[90]
Madl, A.K.; Gaffney, S.H.; Balzer, J.L.; Paustenbach, D.J. Airborne asbestos concentrations associated with heavy equipment brake removal. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 2009, 53, 839–857.
[91]
Mowat, F.; Weidling, R.; Sheehan, P. Simulation tests to assess occupational exposure to airborne asbestos from asphalt-based roofing products. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 2007, 51, 451–462.
[92]
Weir, F.W.; Tolar, G.; Meraz, L.B. Characterization of vehicular brake service personnel exposure to airborne asbestos and particulate. Appl. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 2001, 16, 1139–1146.
[93]
Dawson, A.; Gibbs, A.R.; Pooley, F.D.; Griffiths, D.M.; Hoy, J. Malignant mesothelioma in women. Thorax 1993, 48, 269–274.
[94]
Dodson, R.F.; O'Sullivan, M.; Brooks, D.R.; Hammar, S.P. Quantitative analysis of asbestos burden in women with mesothelioma. Amer. J. Ind. Med. 2003, 43, 188–195.
[95]
Gibbs, A.R.; Jones, J.S.P.; Pooley, F.D.; Griffiths, D.M.; Wagner, J.C. Non-occupational malignant mesotheliomas. In Non-Occupational Exposure to Mineral Fibres; Bignon, J., Peto, J., Saracci, R., Eds.; International Agency for Research on Cancer: Lyon, France, 1989; pp. 219–228.
[96]
Gibbs, A.R.; Griffiths, D.M.; Pooley, F.D.; Jones, J.S.P. Comparisons of fibre types and size distributions in lung tissues of paraoccupational and occupational cases of malignant mesothelioma. Br. J. Ind. Med. 1990, 47, 621–626.
[97]
Huncharek, M.; Capotorto, J.V.; Muscat, J. Domestic asbestos exposure, lung fibre burden, and pleural mesothelioma in a housewife. Br. J. Ind. Med. 1989, 46, 354–355.
[98]
Roggli, V.L.; Longo, W.E. Mineral fiber content of lung tissue in patients with environmental exposures: Household contacts vs. building occupants. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1991, 643, 511–518.
[99]
Roggli, V.L. Mineral fiber content of lung tissue in patients with malignant mesothelioma. In Malignant Mesothelioma; Henderson, D.W., Shilkin, K.B., Langlois, S.L., Witaker, D, Eds.; Hemisphere Publishing Corp.: New York, NY, USA, 1992; pp. 201–222.
[100]
Roggli, V.L.; Sharma, A.; Butnor, K.J.; Sporn, T.; Vollmer, R.T. Malignant mesothelioma and occupational exposure to asbestos: A clinicopathological correlation of 1445 cases. Ultrastruct. Pathol. 2002, 26, 55–65.
[101]
Sheehy, J.W.; Cooper, T.C.; O’Brien, D.M.; McGlothlin, J.D.; Froehlich, P.A. Control. of Asbestos Exposure During Brake Drum Service; U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Cincinnati, OH, USA, 1989.
[102]
Roggli, V.L. Asbestos bodies and nonasbestos ferruginous bodies. In Pathology of Asbestos-associated Diseases, 2nd ed.; Oury, T.D., Sporn, T.A., Eds.; Springer-Verlag: New York, NY, USA, 2004; pp. 34–70.
[103]
Camus, M.; Siemiatycki, J.; Meek, B. Nonoccupational exposure to chrysotile asbestos and the risk of lung cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 1998, 338, 1565–1571, doi:10.1056/NEJM199805283382201.
[104]
American Thoracic Society (ATS). Diagnosis and initial management of nonmalignant diseases related to asbestos. Amer. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2004, 170, 691–715.
[105]
Paustenbach, D.J.; Richter, R.O.; Finley, B.L.; Sheehan, P.J. An evaluation of the historical exposures of mechanics to asbestos in brake dust. Appl. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 2003, 18, 786–804.
[106]
Finley, B.L.; Richter, R.O.; Mowat, F.S.; Mlynarek, S.; Paustenbach, D.J.; Warmerdam, J.M.; Sheehan, P.J. Cumulative asbestos exposure for US automobile mechanics involved in brake repair (circa 1950s？2000). J. Expo. Sci. Enviro. Epidemiol. 2007, 17, 644–655.
[107]
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological Profile for Asbestos; Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry: Atlanta, GA, USA, 2001.
[108]
Hessel, P.A.; Teta, M.J.; Goodman, M.; Lau, E. Mesothelioma among brake mechanics: An expanded analysis of a case-control study. Risk Anal. 2004, 24, 547–552.
