The benefits of walking in natural environments for well-being are increasingly understood. However, less well known are the impacts different types of natural environments have on psychological and emotional well-being. This cross-sectional study investigated whether group walks in specific types of natural environments were associated with greater psychological and emotional well-being compared to group walks in urban environments. Individuals who frequently attended a walking group once a week or more ( n = 708) were surveyed on mental well-being (Warwick Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale), depression (Major Depressive Inventory), perceived stress (Perceived Stress Scale) and emotional well-being (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule). Compared to group walks in urban environments, group walks in farmland were significantly associated with less perceived stress and negative affect, and greater mental well-being. Group walks in green corridors were significantly associated with less perceived stress and negative affect. There were no significant differences between the effect of any environment types on depression or positive affect. Outdoor walking group programs could be endorsed through “green prescriptions” to improve psychological and emotional well-being, as well as physical activity.
References
[1]
World Health Organization. Preamble to the Constitution of the World Health Organization as adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, 19 June–22 July 1946; signed on 22 July 1946 by the Representatives of 61 States (Official Records of the World Health Organization, No. 2, p. 100) and Entered into Force on 7 April 1948. The Definition has not been Amended since 1948.
[2]
World Health Organization. Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs) Factsheet Number 317.
[3]
World Federation for Mental Health. Depression: A Global Crisis. World Mental Health Day, October 10 2012.
[4]
World Health Organization. 2008–2013 Action Plan for the Global Strategy for the Prevention and Control of Noncommunicable Diseases; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2008.
[5]
Boone-Heinonen, J.; Evenson, K.R.; Taber, D.R.; Gordon-Larsen, P. Walking for prevention of cardiovascular disease in men and women: A systematic review of observational studies. Obes. Rev. 2009, 10, 204–217, doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00533.x.
[6]
Morabia, A.; Costanza, M.C. Does walking 15 minutes a day keep the obesity epidemic away? Simulation of the efficacy of a population wide campaign. Am. J. Public Health 2004, 94, 434–440, doi:10.2105/AJPH.94.3.434.
[7]
Pucher, J.; Buehler, R.; Bassett, D.; Dannenberg, A. Walking and cycling to health: A comparative analysis of city, state, and international data. Am. J. Public Health 2010, 100, 1986–1992, doi:10.2105/AJPH.2009.189324.
[8]
Robertson, R.; Robertson, A.; Jepson, R.; Maxwell, M. Walking for depression or depressive symptoms: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ment. Health Phys. Act. 2012, 5, 66–75, doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2012.03.002.
[9]
Armstrong, K.; Edwards, H. The effectiveness of a pram-walking exercise programme in reducing depressive symptomatology for postnatal women. Int. J. Nurs. Pract. 2004, 10, 177–194, doi:10.1111/j.1440-172X.2004.00478.x.
[10]
Health Survey for England 2008: Volume 1 Physical Activity and Fitness; Craig, R., Mindell, J., Hirani, V., Eds.; NHS Information Centre: Leeds, UK, 2009.
[11]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 6 in 10 Adults Now Get Physical Activity by Walking.
[12]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Facts about Physical Activity.
[13]
Department of Health. Start Active, Stay Active: A Report on Physical Activity for Health from the Four Home Countries’ Chief Medical Officers; Department of Health: London, UK, 2011.
[14]
Sallis, J.F.; Owen, N.; Fisher, E.B. Ecological Models of Health Behavior. In Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research and Practice, 4th ed.; Glanz, K., Rimer, B.K., Wiswanath, K., Eds.; Jossey-Bass: San Francisco, CA, USA, 2008; pp. 465–486.
[15]
Ball, K.; Bauman, A.; Leslie, E.; Owen, N. Perceived environmental aesthetics and convenience and company are associated with walking for exercise among Australian adults. Prev. Med. 2001, 33, 434–440, doi:10.1006/pmed.2001.0912.
[16]
Biddle, S.J.H.; Mutrie, N. Psychology of Physical Activity: Determinants, Well-Being and Interventions, 2nd ed. ed.; Routledge: London, UK, 2008.
[17]
Lee, A.C.K.; Maheswaran, R. The health benefits of urban green spaces: A review of the evidence. J. Public Health 2011, 33, 212–222, doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdq068.
McCormack, G.R.; Rock, M.; Toohey, A.M.; Hignell, D. Characteristics of urban parks associated with park use and physical activity: A review of qualitative research. Health Place 2010, 16, 712–726, doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.03.003.
[20]
Kaczynski, A.T.; Henderson, K.A. Environmental correlates of physical activity: A review of evidence about parks and recreation. Leis. Stud. 2007, 29, 315–354.
[21]
Gatersleben, B.; Andrews, M. When walking in nature is not restorative—The role of prospect and refuge. Health Place 2013, 20, 91–101, doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2013.01.001.
[22]
Mytton, O.T.; Townsend, N.; Rutter, H.; Foster, C. Green space and physical activity: An observational study using health survey for England data. Health Place 2012, 18, 1034–1041, doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2012.06.003.
[23]
Kwak, L.; Kremers, S.; Walsh, A.; Brug, H. How is your walking group running? Health Educ. 2005, 106, 21–31.
[24]
Johansson, M.; Hartig, T.; Staats, H. Psychological benefits of walking: Moderation by company and outdoor environment. Appl. Psychol. Health Well-Being 2011, 3, 261–280, doi:10.1111/j.1758-0854.2011.01051.x.
[25]
Plante, T.G.; Gores, C.; Brecht, C.; Carrow, J.; Imbs, A.; Willemsen, E. Does exercise environment enhance the psychological benefits of exercise for women? Int. J. Stress Manag. 2007, 14, 88–98, doi:10.1037/1072-5245.14.1.88.
[26]
Keniger, L.E.; Gaston, K.J.; Irvine, K.N.; Fuller, R.A. What are the benefits of interacting with nature? Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 913–935, doi:10.3390/ijerph10030913.
[27]
Irvine, K.; Warber, S. Greening healthcare: Practicing as if the natural environment really mattered. Altern. Therapies. Health Med. 2002, 8, 76–83.
[28]
Croucher, K.; Myers, L.; Bretherton, J. The Links between Greenspace and Health: A Critical Literature Review; Greenspace Scotland: Stirling, UK, 2007.
[29]
Pretty, J.; Barton, J.; Colbeck, I.; Hine, R.; Mouranto, S.; MacKerron, G.; Wood, C. Health Values from Ecosystems. In The UK National Ecosystem Assessment Technical Report; UK National Ecosystem Assessment, UNEP-WCMC: Cambridge, UK, 2011; pp. 1153–1181.
[30]
Bowler, D.E.; Buyung-Ali, L.; Knight, T.; Pullin, A.S. A systematic review of evidence for the added benefits to health of exposure to natural environments. BMC Public Health 2010, 10, doi:10.1186/1471-2458-10-456.
[31]
Kaplan, R.; Kaplan, S. The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1989.
[32]
Kaplan, S. The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. J. Environ. Psychol. 1995, 15, 169–182, doi:10.1016/0272-4944(95)90001-2.
[33]
Ulrich, R. Aesthetic and Affective Response to Natural Environment. In Human Behavior and the Natural Environment; Altman, I., Wohlwill, J., Eds.; Plenum Press: New York, NY, USA, 1983; pp. 85–125.
[34]
Ulrich, R.; Simons, R.; Losito, B.; Fiorito, E.; Miles, M.; Zelson, M. Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. J. Environ. Psychol. 1991, 11, 201–230, doi:10.1016/S0272-4944(05)80184-7.
[35]
Ulrich, R. View through a window may influence recovery from surgery. Science 1984, 224, 420–421.
[36]
Kaplan, R. The nature of the view from home: Psychological benefits. Environ. Behav. 2001, 33, 507–542, doi:10.1177/00139160121973115.
[37]
Kuo, F.E. Coping with poverty—Impacts of environment and attention in the inner city. Environ. Behav. 2001, 33, 5–34, doi:10.1177/00139160121972846.
[38]
Parsons, R.; Tassinary, L.; Ulrich, R.; Hebl, M.; Grossman-Alexander, M. The view from the road: Implications for stress recovery and immunization. J. Environ. Psychol. 1998, 18, 113–140, doi:10.1006/jevp.1998.0086.
[39]
Tennessen, C.; Cimprich, B. Views to nature: Effects on attention. J. Environ. Psychol. 1995, 15, 77–85, doi:10.1016/0272-4944(95)90016-0.
[40]
Thompson Coon, J.; Boddy, K.; Stein, K.; Whear, R.; Barton, J.; Depledge, M.H. Does participating in physical activity in outdoor natural environments have a greater effect on physical and mental wellbeing than physical activity indoors? A systematic review. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45, 1761–1772, doi:10.1021/es102947t.
[41]
Hartig, T.; Evans, G.W.; Jamner, L.D.; Davis, D.S.; Garling, T. Tracking restoration in natural and urban field settings. J. Environ. Psychol. 2003, 23, 109–123, doi:10.1016/S0272-4944(02)00109-3.
[42]
Berman, M.; Jonides, J.; Kaplan, S. The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature. Psychol. Sci. 2008, 19, 1207–1212, doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02225.x.
[43]
Focht, B.C. Brief walks in outdoor laboratory environments: Effects on affective responses, enjoyment, and intentions to walk for exercise. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 2009, 80, 611–620.
[44]
Baker, G.; Gray, S.R.; Wright, A.; Fitzsimons, C.; Nimmo, M.; Lowry, R.; Mutrie, N. The effect of a pedometer-based community walking intervention “Walking for Wellbeing in the West” on physical activity levels and health outcomes: A 12-week randomized controlled trial. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2008, 5, doi:10.1186/1479-5868-5-44.
[45]
Park, B.; Furuya, K.; Kasetani, T.; Takayama, N.; Kagawa, T.; Miyazaki, Y. Relationship between psychological responses and physical environments in forest settings. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2011, 102, 24–32, doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.03.005.
[46]
Peacock, J.; Hine, R.; Pretty, J. Got the Blues, then Find Some Greenspace: The Mental Health Benefits of Green Exercise Activities and Green Care; University of Essex: Colchester, UK, 2007.
[47]
Barton, J.; Griffin, M.; Pretty, J. Exercise-, nature- and socially interactive-based initiatives to improve mood and self-esteem in the clinical population. Perspect. Public Health 2012, 132, 89–96, doi:10.1177/1757913910393862.
[48]
Sugiyama, T.; Leslie, E.; Giles-Corti, B.; Owen, N. Associations of neighbourhood greenness with physical and mental health: Do walking, social coherence and local social interaction explain the relationships? J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2008, 62, doi:10.1136/jech.2007.064287.
[49]
Staats, H.; Hartig, T. Alone or with a friend: A social context for psychological restoration and environmental preferences. J. Environ. Psychol. 2004, 24, 199–211, doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2003.12.005.
[50]
Velarde, M.D.; Fry, G.; Tveit, M. Health effects of viewing landscapes—Landscape types in environmental psychology. Urban For. Urban Green. 2007, 6, 199–212, doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2007.07.001.
[51]
Jorgensen, A.; Gobster, P.H. Shades of green: Measuring the ecology of urban green space in the context of human health and well-being. Nat. Cult. 2010, 5, 338–363, doi:10.3167/nc.2010.050307.
[52]
Mitchell, R. Is physical activity in natural environments better for mental health than physical activity in other environments? Soc. Sci. Med. 2013, 91, 130–134, doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.04.012.
[53]
Martens, D.; Gutscher, H.; Bauer, N. Walking in “wild” and “tended” urban forests: The impact on psychological well-being. J. Environ. Psychol. 2011, 31, 36–44, doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2010.11.001.
[54]
Pretty, J.; Peacock, J.; Sellens, M.; Griffin, M. The mental and physical health outcomes of green exercise. Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 2005, 15, 319–337, doi:10.1080/09603120500155963.
[55]
White, M.P.; Pahl, S.; Ashbullby, K.; Herbert, S.; Depledge, M.H. Feelings of restoration from recent nature visits. J. Environ. Psychol. 2013, 35, 40–51, doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.04.002.
[56]
Maas, J.; Verheij, R.A.; Groenewegen, P.P.; de Vries, S.; Spreeuwenberg, P. Green space, urbanity, and health: How strong is the relation? J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2006, 60, 587–592, doi:10.1136/jech.2005.043125.
[57]
De Vries, S.; Verheij, R.; Groenewegen, P.; Spreeuwenberg, P. Natural environments-healthy environments? An exploratory analysis of the relationship between greenspace and health. Environ. Plan. A 2003, 35, 1717–1732, doi:10.1068/a35111.
[58]
Wheeler, B.W.; White, M.; Stahl-Timmins, W.; Depledge, M.H. Does living by the coast improve health and wellbeing? Health Place 2012, 18, 1198–1201, doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2012.06.015.
[59]
White, M.P.; Alcock, I.; Wheeler, B.W.; Depledge, M.H. Coastal proximity, health and well-being: Results from a longitudinal panel survey. Health Place 2013, 23, 97–103, doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2013.05.006.
[60]
Barton, J.; Pretty, J. What is the best dose of nature and green exercise for improving mental health? A multi-study analysis. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44, 3947–3955, doi:10.1021/es903183r.
[61]
Hinds, J.; Sparks, P. The affective quality of human-natural environment relationships. Evolut. Psychol. 2011, 9, 451–469.
[62]
Fuller, R.; Irvine, K.; Devine-Wright, P.; Warren, P.; Gaston, K.J. Psychological benefits of greenspace increase with biodiversity. Biol. Lett. 2007, 3, 390–394, doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0149.
[63]
Dallimer, M.; Irvine, K.N.; Skinner, A.M.J.; Davies, Z.G.; Rouquette, J.R.; Maltby, L.L.; Warren, P.H.; Armsworth, P.R.; Gaston, K.J. Biodiversity and the feel-good factor: Understand associations between self-reports human well-being and species richness. BioScience 2012, 62, 47–55, doi:10.1525/bio.2012.62.1.9.
[64]
Fitches, T. Who Took Part in Walking for Health? An Analysis of Walker Demographics April 2008 to April 2010; Natural England: Sheffield, UK, 2011. Natural England Research Reports, Number NERR041.
[65]
Walking for Health. The case for Walking for Health: A briefing for Scheme Coordinators. Available online: http://www.walkingforhealth.org.uk/sites/default/files/caseforsupportbriefing-final.pdf (accessed on 22 October 2013).
[66]
Tennant, R.; Hiller, L.; Fishwick, R.; Platt, S.; Joseph, S.; Weich, S.; Parkinson, J.; Secker, J.; Stewart-Brown, S. The Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS): Development and UK validation. Health Qual. Life Outcomes 2007, 5.
[67]
HM Government. No Health without Mental Health: A Cross-Government Mental Health Outcomes Strategy for People of all Ages; HM Government: London, UK, 2011.
[68]
Hine, R.; Wood, C.; Barton, J.; Pretty, J. The Mental Health and Wellbeing Effects of a Walking and Outdoor Activity Based Therapy Project. A Report for Discovery Quest and Julian Housing; University of Essex: Essex, UK, 2011.
[69]
Ward Thompson, C.; Roe, J.; Aspinall, P.; Mitchell, R.; Clow, A.; Miller, D. More green space is linked to less stress in deprived communities: Evidence from salivary cortisol patterns. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2012, 105, 221–229, doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.12.015.
[70]
Olsen, L.; Mortensen, E.; Bech, P. Prevalence of major depression and stress indicators in the danish general population. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 2004, 109, 96–103, doi:10.1046/j.0001-690X.2003.00231.x.
[71]
Bech, P.; Rasmussen, N.-A.; Olsen, L.R.; Noerholm, V.; Abildgaard, W. The sensitivity and specificity of the Major Depression Inventory, using the present state examination as the index of diagnostic validity. J. Affect. Disord. 2001, 66, 159–164, doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(00)00309-8.
[72]
Munir, F.; Nielsen, K.; Carneiro, I. Transformational leadership and depressive symptoms: A prospective study. J. Affect. Disord. 2010, 120, 235–239, doi:10.1016/j.jad.2009.03.020.
[73]
Forsell, Y. The major depression inventory versus schedules for clinical assessment in neuropsychiatry in a population sample. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 2005, 40, 209–213, doi:10.1007/s00127-005-0876-3.
[74]
Powell, J.; McCarthy, N.; Eysenbach, G. Cross-sectional survey of users of internet depression communities. BMC Psychiatry 2003, 3, doi:10.1186/1471-244X-3-19.
[75]
Taylor, L.; Wicks, P.; Leigh, P.N.; Goldstein, L.H. Prevalence of depression in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and other motor disorders. Eur. J. Neurol. 2010, 17, 1047–1053, doi:10.1111/j.1468-1331.2010.02960.x.
[76]
Cohen, S.; Kamarck, T.; Mermelstein, R. A global measure of perceived stress. J. Health Soc. Behav. 1983, 24, 386–396.
[77]
Stigsdotter, U.K.; Ekholm, O.; Schipperijn, J.; Toftager, M.; Kamper-J？rgensen, F.; Randrup, T.B. Health promoting outdoor environments—Associations between green space, and health, health-related quality of life and stress based on a Danish national representative survey. Scand. J. Public Health 2010, 38, 411–417, doi:10.1177/1403494810367468.
[78]
Watson, D.; Clark, L.A.; Tellegen, A. Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 1988, 54, 1063–1070, doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063.
[79]
Berman, M.; Kross, E.; Krpan, K.; Askren, M.; Burson, A.; Deldin, P.; Kaplan, S.; Sherdell, L.; Gotlib, I.; Jonides, J. Interacting with nature improves cognition and affect for individuals with depression. J. Affect. Disord. 2012, 140, 300–305, doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.03.012.
[80]
Van den Berg, A.E.; Custers, M.H.G. Gardening promotes neuroendocrine and affective restoration from stress. J. Health Psychol. 2011, 16, 3–11, doi:10.1177/1359105310365577.
[81]
Crawford, J.R.; Henry, J.D. The positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS): Construct validity, measurement properties and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. Br. J. Clin. Psychol. 2004, 43, 245–265, doi:10.1348/0144665031752934.
[82]
Coleman, R.J.; Kokolakakis, T.; Ramchandani, G. Walking for Health Attendance Study; Natural England: Sheffield, UK, 2011. Natural England Commissioned Reports, Number 098.
[83]
Office for National Statistics. Analysis of Experimental Subjective Well-being Data from the Annual Population Survey, April to September 2011.
[84]
OECD. Compendium of OECD Well-being Indicators. Available online: http://www.oecd.org/general/compendiumofoecdwell-beingindicators.htm (accessed 22 October 2013).
[85]
Steptoe, A.; Wright, C.; Kunz-Ebrecht, S.R.; Iliffe, S. Dispositional optimism and health behaviour in community-dwelling older people: Associations with healthy ageing. Br. J. Health Psychol. 2006, 11, 71–84, doi:10.1348/135910705X42850.
[86]
Department for Communities and Local Government. The English Indices of Deprivation 2010.
[87]
Tabachnick, B.G.; Fidell, L.S. Using Multivariate Statistics, 6th ed. ed.; Allyn and Bacon: Boston, MA, USA, 2013.
[88]
Milton, K.; Bull, F.; Bauman, A. Reliability and validity testing of a single-item physical activity measure. Br. J. Sports Med. 2011, 45, 203–208, doi:10.1136/bjsm.2009.068395.
[89]
Walking for Health. Outdoor Health Questionnaire. Available online: http://www.walkingforhealth.org.uk/sites/default/files/OHQ-050313-new-brand-colour.pdf (accessed 22 October 2013).
[90]
Brugha, T.; Cragg, D. The list of threatening experiences: The reliability and validity of a brief life events questionnaire. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 1990, 82, 77–81, doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1990.tb01360.x.
[91]
Brugha, T.; Bebbington, P.; Tennant, C.; Hurry, J. The list of threatening experiences: A subset of 12 life event categories with considerable long-term contextual threat. Psychol. Med. 1985, 15, 189–194, doi:10.1017/S003329170002105X.
[92]
Walking for Health, Walk Route Assessment Sheet, 2011. Unpublished questionnaire.
[93]
Department for Communities and Local Government. Planning Policy Guidance 17: Planning for Open Space, Sport and Recreation; Department for Communities and Local Government: London, UK, 2002.
[94]
White, M.P.; Smith, A.; Humphryes, K.; Pahl, S.; Snelling, D.; Depledge, M. Blue space: The importance of water for preference, affect and restorativeness ratings of natural and built scenes. J. Environ. Psychol. 2010, 30, 482–493, doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2010.04.004.
[95]
Phillips, R.; Knox, A.; Langley, E. Walking for Health: ‘Inactive’ Walkers—Barriers to Participation, and Activity Substitution; Natural England: Sheffield, UK, 2011. Natural England Commissioned Reports, Number 068.
[96]
Duvall, J. Enhancing the benefits of outdoor walking with cognitive engagement strategies. J. Environ. Psychol. 2010, 31, 27–35, doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2010.09.003.
[97]
Hynds, H.; Allibone, C. What Motivates People to Participate in Organised Walking Activity?; Natural England: Sheffield, UK, 2009. Natural England Research Reports, Number 028.
[98]
Pretty, J.; Peacock, J.; Hine, R.; Sellens, M.; South, N.; Griffin, M. Green exercise in the UK countryside: Effects on health, and psychological well-being, and implications for policy and planning. J. Environ. Plan. Manag. 2007, 50, 211–231, doi:10.1080/09640560601156466.
[99]
Mackay, G.J.; Neill, J.T. The effect of “green exercise” on state anxiety and the role of exercise duration, intensity and greenness: A quasi-experimental study. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2010, 11, 238–245, doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.01.002.
[100]
Hamer, M.; Stamatakis, E.; Steptoe, A. Dose-response relationship between physical activity and mental health: The scottish health survey. Br. J. Sports Med. 2009, 43, 1111–1114, doi:10.1136/bjsm.2008.046243.
[101]
Issacs, A.J.; Critchley, J.A.; Tai, S.S.; Buckingham, K.; Westley, D.; Harridge, S.D.R.; Smith, C. Exercise Evaluation Randomised Trial (EXERT): A randomised trial comparing GP referral for leisure-centre based exercise, community-based walking and advice only. Health Technol. Assess. 2007, 11, 1–165.
[102]
Cohen, S. Measures of Psychological Stress; The Regents of the University of California: San Francisco, CA, USA, 2000.
[103]
Radloff, L.S. A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Appl. Psychol. Meas. 1977, 1, 385–401, doi:10.1177/014662167700100306.
[104]
Kahn, E.B.; Ramsey, L.T.; Brownson, R.C.; Heath, G.W.; Howze, E.H.; Powell, K.E.; Stone, E.J.; Rajab, M.W.; Corso, P. The effectiveness of interventions to increase physical activity: A systematic review. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2002, 22, 73–107.
[105]
Priest, P. The healing balm effect: Using a walking group to feel better. J. Health Psychol. 2007, 12, 36–52, doi:10.1177/1359105307071734.
[106]
Holmes, G.; Evans, N. Walk and Talk. In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Multi-Dimensional Aspects of Wellbeing, Birmingham, UK, 18–19 July 2011.
[107]
Jepson, R.; Robertson, R.; Cameron, H. Green Prescription Schemes: Mapping and Current Practice; NHS Health Scotland: Edinburgh, UK, 2010.
[108]
Institute at the Golden Gate. Park Prescriptions: Profiles and Resources for Good Health from the Great Outdoors. Available online: http://www.parksconservancy.org./programs/igg/pdfs/park-prescriptions-2010.pdf (accessed 22 October 2013).
[109]
New Zealand Ministry of Health. How the Green Prescription Works.
