This study compares the functional language performance of Tamil-speaking children ( ) who received a cochlear implant (CI) before 2 years of age (earlier implanted group: EIG) and between 3 and 4 years of age (later implanted group: LIG). Everyday functional language of children was evaluated by interviewing parents using the adapted Parents’ Evaluation of Aural/Oral Performance of Children (PEACH) Questionnaire in Tamil language. On average, both groups of children had difficulties in everyday language functioning. However, functional results of EIG were better than those of LIG. In addition significant correlations were found between age at intervention and PEACH score. The evidence lends support to early intervention increasing the functional performance of the children fitted with CI. PEACH can be a clinically feasible evaluation tool to implement in practice for clinicians to obtain meaningful information regarding children’s auditory performance in real life at childhood. 1. Introduction Young children with severe to profound sensorineural hearing loss face challenges in developing spoken language, literacy, psychological functioning, and academic achievement [1–4]. Parents, educators, clinicians, and researchers also agreed that language acquisition in young children with severe to profound hearing loss represents a major challenging issue for them [5]. They reported that children with permanent hearing loss are unable to detect acoustic-phonetic cues essential for speech recognition, even when fitted with traditional amplification devices [4]. Studies reported that, in these children, cochlear implant (CI) provides significant gain in auditory perception and speech production [6, 7]. Osberger [8] claimed that the cochlear implant has a dramatic impact on improving the acquisition and use of spoken language by deaf children, with positive ripple effects socially and psychologically. Therefore improvement in speech and language skills has been considered as an essential goal in children having cochlear implantation [9, 10]. Although the auditory information provided by CI is not as rich and complex as normal hearing [11], prelinguistically deaf children who receive a cochlear implant before the age of 10 years gained significantly better speech production skills than children who implanted later [12]. Furthermore, they learned language at a faster rate than normal peers [4, 13]. Studies also reported that children with CI attained language levels near to similar-age peers with normal hearing after up to 5 years of implant use [14, 15]. Most of
References
[1]
A. Davis, J. Bamford, I. Wilson, T. Ramkalawan, M. Forshaw, and S. Wright, “A critical review of the role of neonatal hearing screening in the detection of congenital hearing impairment,” Health Technology Assessment, vol. 1, no. 10, pp. 1–176, 1997.
[2]
M. Helfand, D. C. Thompson, R. L. Davis, H. McPhillips, C. J. Homer, and T. L. Lieu, Newborn Hearing Screening: Systematic Evidence Review, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, Md, USA, 2001, http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/serfiles.htm.
[3]
L. J. Harrison and S. McLeod, “Risk and protective factors associated with speech and language impairment in a nationally representative sample of 4- to 5-year-old children,” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 508–529, 2010.
[4]
J. K. Niparko, E. A. Tobey, D. J. Thal et al., “Spoken language development in children following cochlear implantation,” The Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 303, no. 15, pp. 1498–1506, 2010.
[5]
L. Duchesne, F. Bergeron, and A. Sutton, “Language development in young children who received cochlear implants: a systematic review,” Communicative Disorders Review, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 33–78, 2008.
[6]
W. D. Baumgartner, S. M. Pok, B. Egelierler, P. Franz, W. Gstoettner, and J. Hamzavi, “The role of age in pediatric cochlear implantation,” International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, vol. 62, no. 3, pp. 223–228, 2002.
[7]
T. A. Serry and P. J. Blamey, “A 4-year investigation into phonetic inventory development in young cochlear implant users,” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 141–154, 1999.
[8]
M. J. Osberger, “Children with cochlear implants: proven winners,” Hearing Health, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 19–23, 1993.
[9]
A. M. McConkey-Robbins, “Rehabilitation after cochlear implantation,” in Cochlear Implants: Principles and Practices, J. K. Niparko, K. I. Kirk, N. K. Mellon, A. McConkey-Robbins, D. L. Tucci, and B. S. Wilson, Eds., pp. 323–367, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, Pa, USA, 2000.
[10]
N. E. Fink, N. Y. Wang, J. Visaya et al., “Childhood Development after Cochlear Implantation (CDaCI) study: design and baseline characteristics,” Cochlear Implants International, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 92–116, 2007.
[11]
A. E. Geers, J. G. Nicholas, and J. S. Moog, “Estimating the influence of cochlear implantation on language development in children,” Audiological Medicine, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 262–273, 2007.
[12]
M. J. Osberger, M. Maso, and L. K. Sam, “Speech intelligibility of children with cochlear implants, tactile aids, or hearing aids,” Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 186–203, 1993.
[13]
S. J. Dettman, D. Pinder, R. J. S. Briggs, R. C. Dowell, and J. R. Leigh, “Communication development in children who receive the cochlear implant younger than 12 months: risks versus benefits,” Ear and Hearing, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 11S–18S, 2007.
[14]
A. E. Geers, J. G. Nicholas, and A. L. Sedey, “Language skills of children with early cochlear implantation,” Ear and Hearing, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 46S–58S, 2003.
[15]
C. M. Connor, H. K. Craig, S. W. Raudenbush, K. Heavner, and T. A. Zwolan, “The age at which young deaf children receive cochlear implants and their vocabulary and speech-production growth: is there an added value for early implantation?” Ear and Hearing, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 628–644, 2006.
[16]
T. Y. C. Ching and M. Hill, “The parents' evaluation of aural/oral performance of children (peach) scale: normative data,” Journal of the American Academy of Audiology, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 220–235, 2007.
[17]
T. Y. C. Ching, K. Crowe, V. Martin et al., “Language development and everyday functioning of children with hearing loss assessed at 3 years of age,” International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 124–131, 2010.
[18]
A. E. Geers, J. S. Moog, J. Biedenstein, C. Brenner, and H. Hayes, “Spoken language scores of children using cochlear implants compared to hearing age-mates at school entry,” Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 371–385, 2009.
[19]
H. Hayes, A. E. Geers, R. Treiman, and J. S. Moog, “Receptive vocabulary development in deaf children with cochlear implants: achievement in an intensive auditory-oral educational setting,” Ear and Hearing, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 128–135, 2009.
[20]
L. Zimmerman, V. G. Steiner, and R. E. Pond, Preschool Language Scale-4, Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, Tex, USA, 2002.
[21]
L. Dunn and L. Dunn, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III, American Guidance, Circle Pines, Minn, USA, 3rd edition, 1997.
[22]
B. Dodd, H. Zhu, S. Crosbie, A. Holm, and A. Ozanne, Diagnostic Evaluation of Articulation and Phonology, Harcourt, London, UK, 2002.
[23]
E. Wiig, W. Secord, and E. Semel, Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals: Preschool 2, Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, Tex, USA, 2nd edition, 2004.
[24]
T. P. Nikolopoulos, D. Dyar, S. Archbold, and G. M. O'Donoghue, “Development of spoken language grammar following cochlear implantation in prelingually deaf children,” Archives of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery, vol. 130, no. 5, pp. 629–633, 2004.
[25]
S. Vidas, R. Hassan, and L. S. Parnes, “Real-life performance considerations of four pediatric multi-channel cochlear implant recipients,” Journal of Otolaryngology, vol. 21, no. 6, pp. 387–393, 1992.
[26]
M. O. Kane, B. Schopmeyer, N. K. Mellon, N. Y. Wang, and J. K. Niparko, “Prelinguistic communication and subsequent language acquisition in children with cochlear implants,” Archives of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery, vol. 130, no. 5, pp. 619–623, 2004.
[27]
J. G. Nicholas and A. E. Geers, “Will they catch up? The role of age at cochlear implantation in the spoken language development of children with severe to profound hearing loss,” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, vol. 50, no. 4, pp. 1048–1062, 2007.
[28]
P. Nott, R. Cowan, P. M. Brown, and G. Wigglesworth, “Assessment of language skills in young children with profound hearing loss under 2 years of age,” Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, vol. 8, pp. 401–421, 2003.
[29]
P. E. Spencer, “Individual differences in language performance after cochlear implantation at one to three years of age: child, family, and linguistic factors,” Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 395–412, 2004.
[30]
J. B. Tomblin, B. A. Barker, L. J. Spencer, X. Zhang, and B. J. Gantz, “The effect of age at cochlear implant initial stimulation on expressive language growth in infants and toddlers,” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, vol. 48, no. 4, pp. 853–867, 2005.
[31]
A. M. Robbins, J. J. Renshaw, and S. W. Berry, “Evaluating meaningful auditory integration in profoundly hearing-impaired children,” American Journal of Otology, vol. 12, supplement, pp. 144–150, 1991.
[32]
S. Zimmerman-Phillips, A. M. Robbins, and M. J. Osberger, “Assessing cochlear implant benefit in very young children,” The Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology. Supplement, vol. 109, supplement 185, pp. 42–43, 2000.
[33]
F. Coninx, V. Weichbold, L. Tsiakpini et al., “Validation of the LittlEARS auditory questionnaire in children with normal hearing,” International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, vol. 73, no. 12, pp. 1761–1768, 2009.
[34]
T. K. Quar, T. Y. Ching, S. Z. Mukari, and P. Newall, “Parents' evaluation of aural/oral performance of children (PEACH) scale in the Malay language: data for normal-hearing children,” International Journal of Audiology, vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 326–333, 2012.
[35]
B. Gillham, Developing a Questionnaire, Continuum, London, UK, 2000.
[36]
T. Y. C. Ching, M. Hill, and H. Dillon, “Effect of variations in hearing-aid frequency response on real-life functional performance of children with severe or profound hearing loss,” International Journal of Audiology, vol. 47, no. 8, pp. 461–475, 2008.
[37]
Joint Committee on Infant Hearing, “Year 2007 position statement: principles and guidelines for early hearing detection and intervention programs,” Pediatrics, vol. 120, no. 4, pp. 898–921, 2007.
[38]
S. P. Goswami, J. C. Shanbal, S. Samasthitha, and U. Navitha, “Feedback questionnaire for aphasia treatment manuals. Field testing of manual for adult non-fluent aphasia therapy in Kannada (MANAT-K),” Project, All India Institute of Speech and Hearing, Mysore, India, 2010.
[39]
D. Ling, Foundations of Spoken Language for Hearing Impaired Children, Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf, Washington, DC, USA, 1989.
[40]
H. J. Neville, D. L. Mills, and D. S. Lawson, “Fractionating language: different neural subsystems with different sensitive periods,” Cerebral Cortex, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 244–258, 1992.
[41]
R. J. Ruben, “A time frame of critical/sensitive periods of language development,” Acta Oto-Laryngologica, vol. 117, no. 2, pp. 202–205, 1997.
[42]
K. I. Kirk, R. T. Miyamoto, C. L. Lento, E. Ying, T. O'Neill, and B. Fears, “Effects of age at implantation in young children,” The Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology. Supplement, vol. 111, supplement 189, pp. 69–73, 2002.
[43]
M. Manrique, F. J. Cervera-Paz, A. Huarte, and M. Molina, “Advantages of cochlear implantation in prelingual deaf children before 2 years of age when compared with later implantation,” Laryngoscope, vol. 114, no. 8, pp. 1462–1469, 2004.
[44]
M. A. Svirsky, S. W. Teoh, and H. Neuburger, “Development of language and speech perception in congenitally, profoundly deaf children as a function of age at cochlear implantation,” Audiology and Neurotology, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 224–233, 2004.
[45]
M. A. Novak, J. B. Firszt, L. A. Rotz, D. Hammes, R. Reeder, and M. Willis, “Cochlear implants in infants and toddlers,” The Annals of Otology, Rhinology and Laryngology, vol. 109, no. 12, pp. 46–49, 2000.
[46]
M. Manrique, F. J. Cervera-Paz, A. Huarte, and M. Molina, “Prospective long-term auditory results of cochlear implantation in prelinguistically deafened children: the importance of early implantation,” Acta Oto-Laryngologica. Supplement, vol. 124, no. 552, pp. 55–63, 2004.
[47]
M. P. Moeller, “Early intervention and language development in children who are deaf and hard of hearing,” Pediatrics, vol. 106, no. 3, pp. 1–9, 2000.
[48]
E. P. Pungello, I. U. Iruka, A. M. Dotterer, R. Mills-Koonce, and J. S. Reznick, “The effects of socioeconomic status, race, and parenting on language development in early childhood,” Developmental Psychology, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 544–557, 2009.
[49]
M. Liu, X. Chen, K. H. Rubin et al., “Autonomy- vs. connectedness-oriented parenting behaviours in Chinese and Canadian mothers,” International Journal of Behavioral Development, vol. 29, no. 6, pp. 489–495, 2005.
[50]
R. P. Ang, “Effects of parenting style on personal and social variables for Asian adolescents,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, vol. 76, no. 4, pp. 503–511, 2006.
[51]
M. Liu and F. Guo, “Parenting practices and their relevance to child behaviors in Canada and China,” Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 109–114, 2010.
[52]
T. Boon, J. P. L. Brokx, I. Dhooge et al., “Predictors of spoken language development following pediatric cochlear implantation,” Ear & Hearing, vol. 33, pp. 627–639, 2012.
