The relationship between domestication and evolution is still a matter of discussion. In this review, we present some arguments for the assumption that domestication could be seen as an evolutionary process including the possibility that new species might evolve. In course of domestication, many breeds have been developed which show numerous alterations in different parameters such as body size, coloring, habitat, behavior, and brain size and composition. Here, we would like to give an overview particularly about alterations and varieties in (brain) morphology and behavior in domestic poultry and argue that these alterations could be seen as adaptations to the man-made environment. 1. Introduction Domestication of animals is a recent event in human history and is defined as that condition wherein the breeding, care, and feeding of animals are more or less controlled by man [1]. The relationship between domestication and evolution is still a matter of discussion. On the one hand, domestication could be seen as an evolutionary and selective process where experiences and interactions with the environment (which includes man) play a significant role [2, 3]. Hemmer [4] even expresses domestication as a special sort of evolution. On the other hand, two arguments are put forward against declaring domestication as a model of evolution. The first argument is that breeder’s selection has replaced sexual mate choice by the animal. This phenomenon has been called “artificial selection” [5, 6]. But by showing that mate choice of the breeder interacts with mate choices made by the animals itself, this argument is weakened [7]. The second argument is that there is still sexual attractiveness between the breeds of a domestic species and its wild ancestors [8]. This is not in line with the biological species concept (for review, see [9–11]) according to which species are freely interbreeding groups of individuals living in reproductive isolation from other groups of this kind. This argument neglects the phenomenon of hybridization and that it is more important to determine which genetic pairing is seen more often statistically and if there are nonrandom mating patterns [12]. Domestication is associated with several alterations and greater variability in a lot of traits in domestic animals if compared to their putative wild ancestors [2]. Although (or just because of this), there are authors like Hemmer [4] which claim domestication as “the decline of environmental appreciation.” Empirical data on brain sizes which show smaller brains in dogs than in wolves or in
References
[1]
E. B. Hale, “Domestication and the evolution of behaviour,” in The Behaviour of Domestic Animals, E. S. E. Hafez, Ed., pp. 22–42, Tindall and Cassell, London, UK, 1969.
[2]
E. O. Price, “Behavioral development in animals undergoing domestication,” Applied Animal Behaviour Science, vol. 65, no. 3, pp. 245–271, 1999.
[3]
E. O. Price, Animal Domestication and Behavior, CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2002.
[4]
H. Hemmer, Domestication: The Decline of Environmental Appreciation, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1983.
[5]
C. Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Proservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, John Murray, London, UK, 1859.
[6]
C. Darwin, The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, John Murray, London, UK, 1868.
[7]
I. Tiemann and G. Rehk？mper, “Effect of artificial selection on female choice among domesticated chickens Gallus gallus f.d,” Poultry Science, vol. 88, no. 9, pp. 1948–1954, 2009.
[8]
W. Herre and M. R？hrs, Haustiere-zoologisch gesehen, Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart, Germany, 1990.
[9]
E. Mayr, Animal Species and Evolution, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass, USA, 1963.
[10]
M. A. F. Noor, “Is the biological species concept showing its age?” Trends in Ecology and Evolution, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 153–154, 2002.
[11]
J. A. Coyne, H. A. Orr, and H. A., Speciation, Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Mass, USA, 2004.
[12]
J. Maynard-Smith, The Theory of Evolution,, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Mass, USA, 1993.
[13]
P. Ebinger, “Zur Hirn-K？rpergewichtsbeziehung bei W？lfen und Haushunden sowie Haushundrassen,” Zeitschrift für S？ugetierkunde, vol. 45, pp. 148–153, 1980.
[14]
P. Ebinger, “Domestication and plasticity of brain organization in mallards (Anas platyrhynchos f.d.),” Brain, Behavior and Evolution, vol. 45, no. 5, pp. 286–300, 1995.
[15]
E. S. E. Hafez, Adaptation of Domestic Animals, Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa, USA, 1968.
[16]
G. Rehk？mper, E. Haase, and H. D. Frahm, “Allometric comparison of brain weight and brain structure volumes in different breeds of the domestic pigeon, Columba livia f.d. (fantails, homing pigeons, strassers),” Brain, Behavior and Evolution, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 141–149, 1988.
[17]
G. Rehk？mper, H. D. Frahm, and J. Cnotka, “Mosaic evolution and adaptive brain component alteration under domestication seen on the background of evolutionary theory,” Brain, Behavior and Evolution, vol. 71, no. 2, pp. 115–126, 2008.
[18]
K. R. Kretchmer and M. W. Fox, “Effects of domestication on animal behaviour,” Veterinary Record, vol. 96, no. 5, pp. 102–108, 1975.
[19]
R. Sossinka, “Domestication in birds,” in Avian Biology, D. S. Farner, Ed., vol. 6, pp. 373–403, Academic Press, New York, NY, USA, 1982.
[20]
E. O. Price, “Behavioral genetics and the process of domestication,” in Genetics and the Behavior of Domestic Animals, T. Grandin, Ed., pp. 31–65, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif, USA, 1998.
[21]
S. Wright, “The relationship of livestock breeding to theories of evolution,” Journal Of Animal Sciences, vol. 46, pp. 1192–1200, 1978.
[22]
R. D. Crawford, Poultry Breeding and Genetics, Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1990.
[23]
R. Boice, “Domestication,” Psychological Bulletin, vol. 80, no. 3, pp. 215–230, 1973.
[24]
J. Diamond, “Evolution, consequences and future of plant and animal domestication,” Nature, vol. 418, no. 6898, pp. 700–707, 2002.
[25]
F. E. Zeuner, A History of Domesticated Animals, Hutchinson & Co Trust Company Limited, London, UK, 1963.
[26]
D. Kruska, “Domestikationsbedingte Hirng？？en？nderungen bei S？ugetieren,” Zeitschrift für Zoologie, Systematik und Evolutionsforschung, vol. 18, pp. 161–195, 1980.
[27]
P. Ebinger, H. DeMacedo, and M. R？hrs, “Hirngr？？en？nderungen von Wild- zum Hausmeerschweinchen,” Zeitschrift für Zoologie, Systematik und Evolutionsforschung, vol. 22, pp. 77–80, 1984.
[28]
K. Senglaub, “Das Kleinhirn der V？gel in Beziehung zu phylogenetischer Stellung, Lebensweise und K？rpergr？？e, nebst Beitr？gen zum Domestikationsproblem,” Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, vol. 169, pp. 1–63, 1960.
[29]
L. Rogers, The Development of Brain and Behaviour in the Chicken, CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 1995.
[30]
J. Clutton-Brock, Domesticated Animals from Early Times, British Museum (Natural History), Heinemann, London, UK, 1981.
[31]
A. Sheppy, “The colour of domestication and the designer chicken,” Optics and Laser Technology, vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 295–301, 2011.
[32]
G. Rehk？mper, E. Kart, H. D. Frahm, and C. W. Werner, “Discontinuous variability of brain composition among domestic chicken breeds,” Brain, Behavior and Evolution, vol. 61, no. 2, pp. 59–69, 2003.
[33]
D. Brothwell, “Roman evidence of a crested form of domestic fowl, as indicated by a skull showing associated cerebral hernia,” Journal of Archaeological Science, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 291–293, 1979.
[34]
H. D. Frahm and G. Rehk？mper, “Allometric comparison of the brain and brain structures in the white crested polish chicken with uncrested domestic chicken breeds,” Brain, Behavior and Evolution, vol. 52, no. 6, pp. 292–307, 1998.
[35]
I. Tiemann and G. Rehk？mper, “Rassenunterschiede bei Haushühnern (Gallus gallus f.d.) bei klassischer und operanter Konditionierung in der Skinner-Box,” Acta Biologica Benrodis, vol. 13, pp. 231–240, 2007.
[36]
I. Tiemann and G. Rehk？mper, “Breed-specific companions-Inter-individual distances reflect isolating mechanisms within domesticated chickens (Gallus gallus f.d.),” Brain Research Bulletin, vol. 76, no. 3, pp. 300–303, 2008.
[37]
I. Tiemann and G. Rehk？mper, “Evolutionary pets: offspring numbers reveal speciation process in domesticated chickens,” PloS ONE, vol. 7, no. 8, Article ID e41453, 2012.
[38]
R. G. Somes, “Ear-tufts: a skin structure mutation of the Araucana fowl,” Journal of Heredity, vol. 69, no. 2, pp. 91–96, 1978.
[39]
A. Sahl, Akustische Wahrnehmung und assoziierte kognitive Leistungen beim Hausgeflügel [Diploma thesis], University of Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany, 2008.
[40]
P. M. Bennett and P. H. Harvey, “Relative brain size and ecology in birds,” Journal of Zoology, vol. 207, pp. 151–169, 1985.
[41]
A. N. Iwaniuk and P. L. Hurd, “The evolution of cerebrotypes in birds,” Brain, Behavior and Evolution, vol. 65, no. 4, pp. 215–230, 2005.
[42]
R. F. Howard and A. Moore, A Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World, Academic Press, London, UK, 1991.
[43]
R. O. Hawes, “Pigeons,” in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I. L. Mason, Ed., pp. 351–356, Longman, New York, NY, USA, 1984.
[44]
R. F. Johnston and M. Janiga, Feral Pigeons, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, USA, 1995.
[45]
P. Ebinger and R. L？hmer, “Comparative quantitative investigations on brains of rock doves, domestic and urban pigeons (Columba l. livia),” Zeitschrift für Zoologie, Systematik und Evolutionsforschung, vol. 22, pp. 136–145, 1984.
[46]
E. Visalberghi, A. Foa, N. E. Baldaccini, and E. Alleva, “New experiments on the homing ability of the rock pigeon,” Monitore Zoologico Italiano (NS), vol. 12, pp. 199–209, 1978.
[47]
F. Papi, P. Ioalé, V. Fiaschi, S. Benvenuti, and N. E. Baldaccini, “Olfactory navigation of pigeons: the effect of treatment with odorous air currents,” Journal of Comparative Physiology, vol. 94, no. 3, pp. 187–193, 1974.
[48]
R. A. Barton and P. H. Harvey, “Mosaic evolution of brain structure in mammals,” Nature, vol. 405, no. 6790, pp. 1055–1058, 2000.
[49]
R. Lande, “Models of speciation by sexual selection on polygenic traits,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 78, no. 6 I, pp. 3721–3725, 1981.
[50]
J. Mehlhorn and G. Rehk？mper, “Neurobiology of the homing pigeon—a review,” Naturwissenschaften, vol. 96, no. 9, pp. 1011–1025, 2009.
[51]
D. S. Moore, The Dependent Gene: The Fallacy of Nature versus Nurture, Smithsonians Institution Press, Washington, DC, USA, 2003.
[52]
J. Cnotka, M. M？hle, and G. Rehk？mper, “Navigational experience affects hippocampus size in homing pigeons,” Brain, Behavior and Evolution, vol. 72, no. 3, pp. 233–238, 2008.
[53]
J. Mehlhorn, B. Haastert, and G. Rehk？mper, “Asymmetry of different brain structures in homing pigeons with and without navigational experience,” Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 213, no. 13, pp. 2219–2224, 2010.
[54]
T. L. Vincent and J. S. Brown, Evolutionary Game Theory, Natural Selection, and Darwinian Dynamics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2005.
[55]
P. Ebinger and R. L？hmer, “Relationship of brain weight and body weight in mallards,” Zoologischer Anzeiger, vol. 214, pp. 285–290, 1985.
[56]
D. B. Miller, “Social displays of mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos): effects of domestication,” Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, vol. 91, no. 2, pp. 221–232, 1977.
[57]
J. Cnotka, H. D. Frahm, and G. Rehk？mper, “Intracranial fat bodies and their influence on brain composition and behaviour in domestic ducks with feather crests (3 case studies),” Deutsche Tier？rztliche Wochenschrift, vol. 113, no. 1, pp. 27–31, 2006.
[58]
J. Cnotka, H. D. Frahm, A. Mpotsaris, and G. Rehk？mper, “Motor incoordination, intracranial fat bodies, and breeding strategy in Crested ducks (Anas platyrhynchos f.d.),” Poultry Science, vol. 86, no. 9, pp. 1850–1855, 2007.
[59]
T. Bartels and N. Kummerfeld, Abschlussbereicht zum Forschungsauftrag 96 HS 046, Untersuchungen zur Haubenbildung bei Hausenten, Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ern？hrung, Frankfurt a. M., Bonn, Germany, 2001.
[60]
T. Bartels, J. Brinkmeier, S. Portmann et al., “Intrakraniale Fettk？rper bei Hausenten (Anas platyrhynchos f.d.),” Tier？rztliche Praxis, vol. 29, pp. 384–390, 2001.
[61]
J. Cnotka, I. Tiemann, H. D. Frahm, and G. Rehk？mper, “Unusual brain composition in Crested Ducks (Anas platyrhynchos f.d.)-including its effect on behavior and genetic transmission,” Brain Research Bulletin, vol. 76, no. 3, pp. 324–328, 2008.
[62]
J. Mehlhorn and G. Rehk？mper, “Brain alterations, their impact on behavior and breeding strategy in Crested Ducks (Anas platyrhynchos f.d.),” Archiv für Geflügelkunde, vol. 74, pp. 203–209, 2010.
[63]
S. J. Gould, The Structure of Evolutionary Theory, The Belknap Press of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass, USA, 2002.
[64]
T. F. Savage, “Mutations and major variants in turkeys,” in Poultry Breeding and Genetics, R. D. Crawford, Ed., pp. 317–331, Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1990.
[65]
P. Ebinger, M. R？hrs, and J. Pohlenz, “Reductions of brain and eye weight in the wild and domestic turkey (Meleagris gallopavo),” Zeitschrift für Zoologie, Systematik und Evolutionsforschung, vol. 27, pp. 142–148, 1989.
[66]
P. Edinger and M. Rohrs, “Volumetric analysis of brain structures, especially of the visual system in wild and domestic turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo),” Journal of Brain Research, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 219–228, 1995.
[67]
A. Portmann, “études sur la cérébralisation chez les oiseaux I,” Alauda, vol. 14, pp. 2–20, 1946.
[68]
G. Rehk？mper, H. D. Frahm, and K. Zilles, “Quantitative development of brain and brain structures in birds (Galliformes and Passeriformes) compared to that in mammals (Insectivores and Primates),” Brain, Behavior and Evolution, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 125–143, 1991.
[69]
R. D. Crawford, “Turkeys,” in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I. L. Mason, Ed., pp. 325–334, Longman, New York, NY, USA, 1984.
[70]
P. Ebinger and R. L？hmer, “A volumetric comparison of brains between greylag geese (Anser anser L.) and domestic geese,” Journal für Hirnforschung, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 291–299, 1987.
[71]
R. O. Hawes, “Mutations and major variants in geese,” in Poultry Breeding and Genetics, R. D. Crawford, Ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1990.
[72]
A. D. Mills, L. L. Crawford, M. Domjan, and J. M. Faure, “The behavior of the Japanese or domestic quail Coturnix japonica,” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 261–281, 1997.
[73]
K. M. Cheng and M. Kimura, “Mutations and major variants in Japanese quail,” in Poultry Breeding and Genetics, R. D. Crawford, Ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1990.
[74]
W. Bessei, R. B. Jones, and J. M. Faure, “Ease of capture by human beings of Japanes quail (Coturnix corturnix japonica) genetically selected for different activity levels,” Archiv für Geflügelkunde, vol. 47, pp. 137–143, 1983.
[75]
H. Saint-Dizier, P. Constantin, D. C. Davies, C. Leterrier, F. Lévy, and S. Richard, “Subdivisions of the arcopallium/posterior pallial amygdala complex are differentially involved in the control of fear behaviour in the Japanese quail,” Brain Research Bulletin, vol. 79, no. 5, pp. 288–295, 2009.
[76]
T. D. Price and M. M. Bouvier, “The evolution of F1 postzygotic incompatibilities in birds,” Evolution, vol. 56, no. 10, pp. 2083–2089, 2002.
[77]
D. A. Lijtmaer, B. Mahler, and P. L. Tubaro, “Hybridization and postzygotic isolation patterns in pigeons and doves,” Evolution, vol. 57, no. 6, pp. 1411–1418, 2003.
[78]
J. T. Martin, “Embryonic pituitary adrenal axis, behavior development and domestication in birds,” Integrative and Comparative Biology, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 489–499, 1978.
[79]
S. Weigend and M. N. Romanov, “The world watch list for domestic animal diversity in the context of conservation and utilisation of poultry biodiversity,” World's Poultry Science Journal, vol. 58, no. 4, pp. 411–430, 2002.
[80]
J. Hillel, M. A. M. Groenen, M. Tixier-Boichard et al., “Biodiversity of 52 chicken populations assessed by microsatellite typing of DNA pools,” Genetics Selection Evolution, vol. 35, no. 5, pp. 533–557, 2003.
[81]
H. Sawai, H. L. Kim, K. Kuno et al., “The origin and genetic variation of domestic chickens with special reference to junglefowls Gallus g. gallus and G. varius,” PLoS ONE, vol. 5, no. 5, Article ID e10639, 2010.
