This review examines the properties of graphene from an experimental perspective. The intent is to review the most important experimental results at a level of detail appropriate for new graduate students who are interested in a general overview of the fascinating properties of graphene. While some introductory theoretical concepts are provided, including a discussion of the electronic band structure and phonon dispersion, the main emphasis is on describing relevant experiments and important results as well as some of the novel applications of graphene. In particular, this review covers graphene synthesis and characterization, field-effect behavior, electronic transport properties, magnetotransport, integer and fractional quantum Hall effects, mechanical properties, transistors, optoelectronics, graphene-based sensors, and biosensors. This approach attempts to highlight both the means by which the current understanding of graphene has come about and some tools for future contributions. 1. Introduction Graphene is a single two-dimensional layer of carbon atoms bound in a hexagonal lattice structure. It has been extensively studied in the last several years even though it was only isolated for the first time in 2004 [1]. Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov won the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics for their groundbreaking work on graphene. The fast uptake of interest in graphene is due primarily to a number of exceptional properties that it has been found to possess. There have been several reviews discussing the topic of graphene in recent years. Many are theoretically oriented, with Castro Neto et al.’s review of the electronic properties as a prominent example [2] and a more focused review of the electronic transport properties [3]. Experimental reviews, to name only a few, include detailed discussions of synthesis [4] and Raman characterization methods [5], of transport mechanisms [6, 7], of relevant applications of graphene such as transistors and the related bandgap engineering [8], and of graphene optoelectronic technologies [9]. We feel, however, that the literature is lacking a comprehensive overview of all major recent experimental results related to graphene and its applications. It is with the intent to produce such a document that we wrote this review. We gathered a great number of results from what we believe to be the most relevant fields in current graphene research in order to give a starting point to readers interested in expanding their knowledge on the topic. The review should be particularly wellsuited to graduate students who desire an
References
[1]
K. S. Novoselov, A. K. Geim, S. V. Morozov et al., “Electric field in atomically thin carbon films,” Science, vol. 306, no. 5696, pp. 666–669, 2004.
[2]
A. H. Castro Neto, F. Guinea, N. M. R. Peres, K. S. Novoselov, and A. K. Geim, “The electronic properties of graphene,” Reviews of Modern Physics, vol. 81, no. 1, pp. 109–162, 2009.
[3]
S. Das Sarma, S. Adam, E. H. Hwang, and E. Rossi, “Electronic transport in two-dimensional graphene,” Reviews of Modern Physics, vol. 83, no. 2, pp. 407–470, 2011.
[4]
W. Choi, I. Lahiri, R. Seelaboyina, and Y. S. Kang, “Synthesis of graphene and its applications: a review,” Critical Reviews in Solid State and Materials Sciences, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 52–71, 2010.
[5]
Z. H. Ni, Y. Y. Wang, T. Yu, and Z. X. Shen, “Raman spectroscopy and imaging of graphene,” Nano Research, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 273–291, 2008.
[6]
P. Avouris, “Graphene: electronic and photonic properties and devices,” Nano Letters, vol. 10, no. 11, pp. 4285–4294, 2010.
[7]
F. Giannazzo, V. Raineri, and E. Rimini, “Transport properties of graphene with nanoscale lateral resolution,” Scanning Probe Microscopy in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, vol. 2, pp. 247–258, 2011.
[8]
F. Schwierz, “Graphene transistors,” Nature Nanotechnology, vol. 5, no. 7, pp. 487–496, 2010.
[9]
F. Bonaccorso, Z. Sun, T. Hasan, and A. C. Ferrari, “Graphene photonics and optoelectronics,” Nature Photonics, vol. 4, no. 9, pp. 611–622, 2010.
[10]
P. R. Wallace, “The band theory of graphite,” Physical Review, vol. 71, no. 9, pp. 622–634, 1947.
[11]
L. A. Falkovsky, “Phonon dispersion in graphene,” Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics, vol. 105, no. 2, pp. 397–403, 2007.
[12]
L. Wirtz and A. Rubio, “The phonon dispersion of graphite revisited,” Solid State Communications, vol. 131, no. 3-4, pp. 141–152, 2004.
[13]
S. Bernard, E. Whiteway, V. Yu, D. G. Austing, and M. Hilke, “Experimental phonon band structure of graphene using C12 and C13 Isotopes,” Mesoscale and Nanoscale Physics. In press, http://arxiv.org/abs/1111.1643.
[14]
K. S. Subrahmanyam, S. R.C. Vivekchand, A. Govindaraj, and C. N.R. Rao, “A study of graphenes prepared by different methods: characterization, properties and solubilization,” Journal of Materials Chemistry, vol. 18, no. 13, pp. 1517–1523, 2008.
[15]
P. Venezuela, M. Lazzeri, and F. Mauri, “Theory of double-resonant Raman spectra in graphene: intensity and line shape of defect-induced and two-phonon bands,” Physical Review B, vol. 84, no. 3, 2011.
[16]
K. V. Emtsev, A. Bostwick, K. Horn et al., “Towards wafer-size graphene layers by atmospheric pressure graphitization of silicon carbide,” Nature Materials, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 203–207, 2009.
[17]
S. Bae, H. Kim, Y. Lee et al., “Roll-to-roll production of 30-inch graphene films for transparent electrodes,” Nature Nanotechnology, vol. 5, no. 8, pp. 574–578, 2010.
[18]
X. Li, C. W. Magnuson, A. Venugopal et al., “Graphene films with large domain size by a two-step chemical vapor deposition process,” Nano Letters, vol. 10, no. 11, pp. 4328–4334, 2010.
[19]
S. Lee, K. Lee, and Z. Zhong, “Wafer scale homogeneous bilayer graphene films by chemical vapor deposition,” Nano Letters, vol. 10, no. 11, pp. 4702–4707, 2010.
[20]
N. Zhan, M. Olmedo, G. Wang, and J. Liu, “Layer-by-layer synthesis of large-area graphene films by thermal cracker enhanced gas source molecular beam epitaxy,” Carbon, vol. 49, no. 6, pp. 2046–2052, 2011.
[21]
H. He, J. Klinowski, M. Forster, and A. Lerf, “A new structural model for graphite oxide,” Chemical Physics Letters, vol. 287, no. 1-2, pp. 53–56, 1998.
[22]
M. J. McAllister, J. L. Li, D. H. Adamson et al., “Single sheet functionalized graphene by oxidation and thermal expansion of graphite,” Chemistry of Materials, vol. 19, no. 18, pp. 4396–4404, 2007.
[23]
I. Childres, L. A. Jauregui, J. Tian, and Y. P. Chen, “Effect of oxygen plasma etching on graphene studied using Raman spectroscopy and electronic transport measurements,” New Journal of Physics, vol. 13, article 025008, 2011.
[24]
T. Gokus, R. R. Nair, A. Bonetti et al., “Making graphene luminescent by oxygen plasma treatment,” ACS Nano, vol. 3, no. 12, pp. 3963–3968, 2009.
[25]
V. Yu, Optics and chemical vapour deposition of graphene monolayers on various substrates, Ph.D. thesis, Mcgill University, 2010.
[26]
P. Blake, E. W. Hill, A. H. Castro Neto et al., “Making graphene visible,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 91, no. 6, Article ID 063124, 2007.
[27]
J. C. Meyer, A. K. Geim, M. I. Katsnelson, K. S. Novoselov, T. J. Booth, and S. Roth, “The structure of suspended graphene sheets,” Nature, vol. 446, no. 7131, pp. 60–63, 2007.
[28]
P. Y. Huang, C. S. Ruiz-Vargas, A. M. Van Der Zande et al., “Grains and grain boundaries in single-layer graphene atomic patchwork quilts,” Nature, vol. 469, no. 7330, pp. 389–392, 2011.
[29]
A. Bostwick, T. Ohta, T. Seyller, K. Horn, and E. Rotenberg, “Quasiparticle dynamics in graphene,” Nature Physics, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 36–40, 2007.
[30]
S. Y. Zhou, G. H. Gweon, A. V. Fedorov et al., “Substrate-induced bandgap opening in epitaxial graphene,” Nature Materials, vol. 6, no. 10, pp. 770–775, 2007.
[31]
V. E. Dorgan, M. H. Bae, and E. Pop, “Mobility and saturation velocity in graphene on SiO2,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 97, no. 8, Article ID 082112, 2010.
[32]
A. K. Geim and K. S. Novoselov, “The rise of graphene,” Nature Materials, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 183–191, 2007.
[33]
D. K. Efetov and P. Kim, “Controlling electron-phonon interactions in graphene at ultrahigh carrier densities,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 105, no. 25, article 256805, 2010.
[34]
J. H. Chen, C. Jang, S. Adam, M. S. Fuhrer, E. D. Williams, and M. Ishigami, “Charged-impurity scattering in graphene,” Nature Physics, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 377–381, 2008.
[35]
J. H. Chen, W. G. Cullen, C. Jang, M. S. Fuhrer, and E. D. Williams, “Defect scattering in graphene,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 102, no. 23, Article ID 236805, 2009.
[36]
J. H. Chen, C. Jang, S. Xiao, M. Ishigami, and M. S. Fuhrer, “Intrinsic and extrinsic performance limits of graphene devices on SiO2,” Nature Nanotechnology, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 206–209, 2008.
[37]
M. I. Katsnelson, K. S. Novoselov, and A. K. Geim, “Chiral tunnelling and the Klein paradox in graphene,” Nature Physics, vol. 2, no. 9, pp. 620–625, 2006.
[38]
N. Stander, B. Huard, and D. Goldhaber-Gordon, “Evidence for Klein tunneling in graphene p-n junctions,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 102, no. 2, Article ID 026807, 2009.
[39]
A. F. Young and P. Kim, “Quantum interference and Klein tunnelling in graphene heterojunctions,” Nature Physics, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 222–226, 2009.
[40]
K. S. Novoselov, A. K. Geim, S. V. Morozov et al., “Two-dimensional gas of massless Dirac fermions in graphene,” Nature, vol. 438, no. 7065, pp. 197–200, 2005.
[41]
Y. W. Tan, Y. Zhang, K. Bolotin et al., “Measurement of scattering rate and minimum conductivity in graphene,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 99, no. 24, Article ID 246803, 2007.
[42]
V. Adamyan and V. Zavalniuk, “Phonons in graphene with point defects,” Journal of Physics Condensed Matter, vol. 23, no. 1, article 015402, 2011.
[43]
V. N. Popov, “Theoretical evidence for T1/2 specific heat behavior in carbon nanotube systems,” Carbon, vol. 42, no. 5-6, pp. 991–995, 2004.
[44]
M. S. Dresselhaus and P. C. Eklund, “Phonons in carbon nanotubes,” Advances in Physics, vol. 49, no. 6, pp. 705–814, 2000.
[45]
A. A. Balandin, S. Ghosh, W. Bao et al., “Superior thermal conductivity of single-layer graphene,” Nano Letters, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 902–907, 2008.
[46]
S. Ghosh, I. Calizo, D. Teweldebrhan et al., “Extremely high thermal conductivity of graphene: prospects for thermal management applications in nanoelectronic circuits,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 92, no. 15, Article ID 151911, 2008.
[47]
S. Chen, A. L. Moore, W. Cai et al., “Raman measurements of thermal transport in suspended monolayer graphene of variable sizes in vacuum and gaseous environments,” ACS Nano, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 321–328, 2011.
[48]
C. Faugeras, B. Faugeras, M. Orlita, M. Potemski, R. R. Nair, and A. K. Geim, “Thermal conductivity of graphene in corbino membrane geometry,” ACS Nano, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 1889–1892, 2010.
[49]
J.-U. Lee, D. Yoon, H. Kim, S. W. Lee, and H. Cheong, “Thermal conductivity of suspended pristine graphene measured by Raman spectroscopy,” Physical Review B, vol. 83, no. 8, article 081419, 2011.
[50]
A. D. Liao, J. Z. Wu, X. Wang et al., “Thermally limited current carrying ability of graphene nanoribbons,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 106, no. 25, article 256801, 2011.
[51]
J. H. Seol, I. Jo, A. L. Moore et al., “Two-dimensional phonon transport in supported graphene,” Science, vol. 328, no. 5975, pp. 213–216, 2010.
[52]
A. K. Geim, “Graphene: status and prospects,” Science, vol. 324, no. 5934, pp. 1530–1534, 2009.
[53]
K. S. Kim, Y. Zhao, H. Jang et al., “Large-scale pattern growth of graphene films for stretchable transparent electrodes,” Nature, vol. 457, no. 7230, pp. 706–710, 2009.
[54]
J. Hass, W. A. De Heer, and E. H. Conrad, “The growth and morphology of epitaxial multilayer graphene,” Journal of Physics Condensed Matter, vol. 20, no. 32, Article ID 323202, 2008.
[55]
C. Berger, Z. Song, T. Li et al., “Ultrathin epitaxial graphite: 2D electron gas properties and a route toward graphene-based nanoelectronics,” Journal of Physical Chemistry B, vol. 108, no. 52, pp. 19912–19916, 2004.
[56]
Z. Y. Juang, C. Y. Wu, C. W. Lo et al., “Synthesis of graphene on silicon carbide substrates at low temperature,” Carbon, vol. 47, no. 8, pp. 2026–2031, 2009.
[57]
S. Unarunotai, Y. Murata, C. E. Chialvo et al., “Transfer of graphene layers grown on SiC wafers to other substrates and their integration into field effect transistors,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 95, no. 20, Article ID 202101, 2009.
[58]
Q. Yu, J. Lian, S. Siriponglert, H. Li, Y. P. Chen, and S.-S. Pei, “Graphene segregated on Ni surfaces and transferred to insulators,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 93, no. 11, 2008.
[59]
X. Li, W. Cai, J. An et al., “Large-area synthesis of high-quality and uniform graphene films on copper foils,” Science, vol. 324, no. 5932, pp. 1312–1314, 2009.
[60]
V. Yu, E. Whiteway, J. Maassen, and M. Hilke, “Raman spectroscopy of the internal strain of a graphene layer grown on copper tuned by chemical vapor deposition,” Physical Review B, vol. 84, no. 20, article 205407, 2011.
[61]
D. V. Kosynkin, A. L. Higginbotham, A. Sinitskii et al., “Longitudinal unzipping of carbon nanotubes to form graphene nanoribbons,” Nature, vol. 458, no. 7240, pp. 872–876, 2009.
[62]
M. Choucair, P. Thordarson, and J. A. Stride, “Gram-scale production of graphene based on solvothermal synthesis and sonication,” Nature Nanotechnology, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 30–33, 2009.
[63]
H. Duan, E. Xie, L. Han, and Z. Xu, “Turning PMMA nanofibers into graphene nanoribbons by in situ electron beam irradiation,” Advanced Materials, vol. 20, no. 17, pp. 3284–3288, 2008.
[64]
K. S. Subrahmanyam, L. S. Panchakarla, A. Govindaraj, and C. N.R. Rao, “Simple method of preparing graphene flakes by an arc-discharge method,” Journal of Physical Chemistry C, vol. 113, no. 11, pp. 4257–4259, 2009.
[65]
X. Wang, L. Zhi, N. Tsao, ?. Tomovi?, J. Li, and K. Müllen, “Transparent carbon films as electrodes in organic solar cells,” Angewandte Chemie, vol. 47, no. 16, pp. 2990–2992, 2008.
[66]
Y. Zhu, S. Murali, W. Cai et al., “Graphene and graphene oxide: synthesis, properties, and applications,” Advanced Materials, vol. 22, no. 35, pp. 3906–3924, 2010.
[67]
S. Stankovich, D. A. Dikin, R. D. Piner et al., “Synthesis of graphene-based nanosheets via chemical reduction of exfoliated graphite oxide,” Carbon, vol. 45, no. 7, pp. 1558–1565, 2007.
[68]
J. I. Parades, S. Villar-Rodil, A. Martínez-Alonso, and J. M.D. Tascón, “Graphene oxide dispersions in organic solvents,” Langmuir, vol. 24, no. 19, pp. 10560–10564, 2008.
[69]
D. C. Marcano, D. V. Kosynkin, J. M. Berlin et al., “Improved synthesis of graphene oxide,” ACS Nano, vol. 4, no. 8, pp. 4806–4814, 2010.
[70]
H. He, T. Riedl, A. Lerf, and J. Klinowski, “Solid-state NMR studies of the structure of graphite oxide,” Journal of Physical Chemistry, vol. 100, no. 51, pp. 19954–19958, 1996.
[71]
W. S. Hummers and R. E. Offeman, “Preparation of graphitic oxide,” Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 80, no. 6, p. 1339, 1958.
[72]
L. Vandsburger, E. J. Swanson, J. Tavares, J. L. Meunier, and S. Coulombe, “Stabilized aqueous dispersion of multi-walled carbon nanotubes obtained by RF glow-discharge treatment,” Journal of Nanoparticle Research, vol. 11, no. 7, pp. 1817–1822, 2009.
[73]
K. S. Hazra, J. Rafiee, M. A. Rafiee et al., “Thinning of multilayer graphene to monolayer graphene in a plasma environment,” Nanotechnology, vol. 22, no. 2, 2011.
[74]
H. X. You, N. M. D. Brown, and K. F. Al-Assadi, “Radio-frequency (RF) plasma etching of graphite with oxygen: a scanning tunnelling microscope study,” Surface Science, vol. 284, no. 3, pp. 263–272, 1993.
[75]
A. Nourbakhsh, M. Cantoro, T. Vosch et al., “Bandgap opening in oxygen plasma-treated graphene,” Nanotechnology, vol. 21, no. 43, 2010.
[76]
M. A. Pimenta, G. Dresselhaus, M. S. Dresselhaus, L. G. Can?ado, A. Jorio, and R. Saito, “Studying disorder in graphite-based systems by Raman spectroscopy,” Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, vol. 9, no. 11, pp. 1276–1291, 2007.
[77]
Y. Y. Wang, Z. H. Ni, T. Yu et al., “Raman studies of monolayer graphene: the substrate effect,” Journal of Physical Chemistry C, vol. 112, no. 29, pp. 10637–10640, 2008.
[78]
V. Yu and M. Hilke, “Large contrast enhancement of graphene monolayers by angle detection,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 95, no. 15, 2009.
[79]
S. Y. Zhou, D. A. Siegel, A. V. Fedorov et al., “Origin of the energy bandgap in epitaxial graphene,” Nature Materials, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 259–260, 2008.
[80]
I. Gierz, C. Riedl, U. Starke, C. R. Ast, and K. Kern, “Atomic hole doping of graphene,” Nano Letters, vol. 8, no. 12, pp. 4603–4607, 2008.
[81]
K. F. Mak, M. Y. Sfeir, J. A. Misewich, and T. F. Heinza, “The evolution of electronic structure in few-layer graphene revealed by optical spectroscopy,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 107, no. 34, pp. 14999–15004, 2010.
[82]
Y. H. Wu, T. Yu, and Z. X. Shen, “Two-dimensional carbon nanostructures: fundamental properties, synthesis, characterization, and potential applications,” Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 108, no. 7, article 071301, 2010.
[83]
L. A. Ponomarenko, R. Yang, T. M. Mohiuddin et al., “Effect of a high-κ environment on charge carrier mobility in graphene,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 102, no. 20, 2009.
[84]
C. R. Dean, A. F. Young, I. Meric et al., “Boron nitride substrates for high-quality graphene electronics,” Nature Nanotechnology, vol. 5, no. 10, pp. 722–726, 2010.
[85]
J. Moser, A. Barreiro, and A. Bachtold, “Current-induced cleaning of graphene,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 91, no. 16, 2007.
[86]
L. J. Van Der Pauw, “A method of measuring specific resistivity and Hall effect of discs of arbitrary shape,” Philips Research Reports, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 1–9, 1958.
[87]
Y. Zhang, V. W. Brar, C. Girit, A. Zettl, and M. F. Crommie, “Origin of spatial charge inhomogeneity in graphene,” Nature Physics, vol. 5, no. 10, pp. 722–726, 2009.
[88]
M. I. Katsnelson and A. K. Geim, “Electron scattering on microscopic corrugations in graphene,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, vol. 366, no. 1863, pp. 195–204, 2008.
[89]
K. I. Bolotin, K. J. Sikes, J. Hone, H. L. Stormer, and P. Kim, “Temperature-dependent transport in suspended graphene,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 101, no. 9, Article ID 096802, 2008.
[90]
N. M.R. Peres, “The transport properties of graphene,” Journal of Physics Condensed Matter, vol. 21, no. 32, 2009.
[91]
E. H. Hwang and S. Das Sarma, “Acoustic phonon scattering limited carrier mobility in two-dimensional extrinsic graphene,” Physical Review B, vol. 77, no. 11, 2008.
[92]
S. Pisana, M. Lazzeri, C. Casiraghi et al., “Breakdown of the adiabatic Born-Oppenheimer approximation in graphene,” Nature Materials, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 198–201, 2007.
[93]
S. Adam, E. H. Hwang, V. M. Galitski, and S. Das Sarma, “A self-consistent theory for graphene transport,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 104, no. 47, pp. 18392–18397, 2007.
[94]
F. Schedin, A. K. Geim, S. V. Morozov et al., “Detection of individual gas molecules adsorbed on graphene,” Nature Materials, vol. 6, no. 9, pp. 652–655, 2007.
[95]
T. Stauber, N. M.R. Peres, and F. Guinea, “Electronic transport in graphene: a semiclassical approach including midgap states,” Physical Review B, vol. 76, no. 20, 2007.
[96]
X. Du, I. Skachko, A. Barker, and E. Y. Andrei, “Approaching ballistic transport in suspended graphene,” Nature Nanotechnology, vol. 3, no. 8, pp. 491–495, 2008.
[97]
K. I. Bolotin, K. J. Sikes, Z. Jiang et al., “Ultrahigh electron mobility in suspended graphene,” Solid State Communications, vol. 146, no. 9-10, pp. 351–355, 2008.
[98]
O. V. Yazyev and S. G. Louie, “Electronic transport in polycrystalline graphene,” Nature Materials, vol. 9, no. 10, pp. 806–809, 2010.
[99]
D. Wei, Y. Liu, Y. Wang, H. Zhang, L. Huang, and G. Yu, “Synthesis of n-doped graphene by chemical vapor deposition and its electrical properties,” Nano Letters, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 1752–1758, 2009.
[100]
H. Cao, Q. Yu, L. A. Jauregui et al., “Electronic transport in chemical vapor deposited graphene synthesized on Cu: quantum Hall effect and weak localization,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 96, no. 25, Article ID 259901, 2010.
[101]
H. J. Park, J. Meyer, S. Roth, and V. Skákalová, “Growth and properties of few-layer graphene prepared by chemical vapor deposition,” Carbon, vol. 48, no. 4, pp. 1088–1094, 2010.
[102]
J. Martin, N. Akerman, G. Ulbricht et al., “Observation of electron-hole puddles in graphene using a scanning single-electron transistor,” Nature Physics, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 144–148, 2008.
[103]
F. Miao, S. Wijeratne, Y. Zhang, U. C. Coskun, W. Bao, and C. N. Lau, “Phase-coherent transport in graphene quantum billiards,” Science, vol. 317, no. 5844, pp. 1530–1533, 2007.
[104]
I. Meric, C. R. Dean, A. F. Young et al., “Channel length scaling in graphene field-effect transistors studied with pulsed current-voltage measurements,” Nano Letters, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 1093–1097, 2011.
[105]
A. Barreiro, M. Lazzeri, J. Moser, F. Mauri, and A. Bachtold, “Transport properties of graphene in the high-current limit,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 103, no. 7, Article ID 076601, 2009.
[106]
F. Xia, V. Perebeinos, Y.-M. Lin, Y. Wu, and P. Avouris, “The origins and limits of metal-graphene junction resistance,” Nature Nanotechnology, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 179–184, 2011.
[107]
K. V. Klitzing, G. Dorda, and M. Pepper, “New method for high-accuracy determination of the fine-structure constant based on quantized hall resistance,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 45, no. 6, pp. 494–497, 1980.
[108]
K. S. Novoselov, Z. Jiang, Y. Zhang et al., “Room-temperature quantum hall effect in graphene,” Science, vol. 315, no. 5817, p. 1379, 2007.
[109]
X. Du, I. Skachko, F. Duerr, A. Luican, and E. Y. Andrei, “Fractional quantum Hall effect and insulating phase of Dirac electrons in graphene,” Nature, vol. 462, no. 7270, pp. 192–195, 2009.
[110]
C. R. Dean, A. F. Young, P. Cadden-Zimansky et al., “Multicomponent fractional quantum Hall effect in graphene,” Nature Physics, vol. 7, no. 9, pp. 693–696, 2011.
[111]
K. S. Novoselov, E. McCann, S. V. Morozov et al., “Unconventional quantum Hall effect and Berry's phase of 2π in bilayer graphene,” Nature Physics, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 177–180, 2006.
[112]
V. M. Apalkov and T. Chakraborty, “Fractional quantum hall states of dirac electrons in graphene,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 97, no. 12, Article ID 126801, 2006.
[113]
Z. F. Ezawa, Quantum Hall Effects: Field Theoretical Approach and Related Topics, World Scientific, Hackensack, NJ, USA, 2008.
[114]
V. P. Gusynin and S. G. Sharapov, “Unconventional integer quantum hall effect in graphene,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 95, no. 14, Article ID 146801, pp. 1–4, 2005.
[115]
S. Datta, Electronic Transport in Mesoscopic Systems, Cambridge Studies in Semiconductor Physics and Microelectronics Engineering, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, USA, 1997.
[116]
F. V. Tikhonenko, A. A. Kozikov, A. K. Savchenko, and R. V. Gorbachev, “Transition between electron localization and antilocalization in graphene,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 103, no. 22, 2009.
[117]
S. V. Morozov, K. S. Novoselov, M. I. Katsnelson et al., “Strong suppression of weak localization in graphene,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 97, no. 1, Article ID 016801, 2006.
[118]
E. Mccann, K. Kechedzhi, V. I. Fala'Ko, H. Suzuura, T. Ando, and B. L. Altshuler, “Weak-localization magnetoresistance and valley symmetry in graphene,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 97, no. 14, 2006.
[119]
Y. Zhang, Z. Jiang, J. P. Small et al., “Landau-level splitting in graphene in high magnetic fields,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 96, no. 13, Article ID 136806, pp. 1–4, 2006.
[120]
E. Whiteway, V. Yu, J. Lefebvre, R. Gagnon, and M. Hilke, “Magneto-transport of large CVD-grown graphene,” Disordered Systems and Neural Networks. In press, http://arxiv.org/abs/1011.5712.
[121]
Y. Zhang, Y. W. Tan, H. L. Stormer, and P. Kim, “Experimental observation of the quantum Hall effect and Berry's phase in graphene,” Nature, vol. 438, no. 7065, pp. 201–204, 2005.
[122]
Y. Zhao, P. Cadden-Zimansky, Z. Jiang, and P. Kim, “Symmetry breaking in the zero-energy landau level in bilayer graphene,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 104, no. 6, Article ID 066801, 2010.
[123]
K. I. Bolotin, F. Ghahari, M. D. Shulman, H. L. Stormer, and P. Kim, “Observation of the fractional quantum Hall effect in graphene,” Nature, vol. 462, no. 7270, pp. 196–199, 2009.
[124]
J. S. Bunch, A. M. Van Der Zande, S. S. Verbridge et al., “Electromechanical resonators from graphene sheets,” Science, vol. 315, no. 5811, pp. 490–493, 2007.
[125]
D. C. Tsui, H. L. Stormer, and A. C. Gossard, “Two-dimensional magnetotransport in the extreme quantum limit,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 48, no. 22, pp. 1559–1562, 1982.
[126]
D. Li and R. B. Kaner, “Materials science: graphene-based materials,” Science, vol. 320, no. 5880, pp. 1170–1171, 2008.
[127]
H. G. Craighead, “Nanoelectromechanical systems,” Science, vol. 290, no. 5496, pp. 1532–1535, 2000.
[128]
K. L. Ekinci and M. L. Roukes, “Nanoelectromechanical systems,” Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 76, no. 6, Article ID 061101, 2005.
[129]
I. W. Frank, D. M. Tanenbaum, A. M. Van Der Zande, and P. L. McEuen, “Mechanical properties of suspended graphene sheets,” Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology B, vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 2558–2561, 2007.
[130]
J. S. Bunch, S. S. Verbridge, J. S. Alden et al., “Impermeable atomic membranes from graphene sheets,” Nano Letters, vol. 8, no. 8, pp. 2458–2462, 2008.
[131]
W. Weaver, S. Timoshenko, and D. Young, Vibration Problems in Engineering, Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY, USA, 1990.
[132]
B. T. Kelly, Physics of Graphite, Applied Science, London, UK, 1981.
[133]
V. Sazonova, Y. Yaish, H. Ustunel, D. Roundy, T. Arias, and P. McEuen, “A tunable carbon nanotube electromechanical oscillator,” Nature, vol. 431, no. 7006, pp. 284–287, 2004.
[134]
S. Scharfenberg, D. Z. Rocklin, C. Chialvo, R. L. Weaver, P. M. Goldbart, and N. Mason, “Probing the mechanical properties of graphene using a corrugated elastic substrate,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 98, no. 9, 2011.
[135]
L. Sekaric, J. M. Parpia, H. G. Craighead, T. Feygelson, B. H. Houston, and J. E. Butler, “Nanomechanical resonant structures in nanocrystalline diamond,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 81, no. 23, pp. 4455–4457, 2002.
[136]
S. S. Verbridge, J. M. Parpia, R. B. Reichenbach, L. M. Bellan, and H. G. Craighead, “High quality factor resonance at room temperature with nanostrings under high tensile stress,” Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 99, no. 12, 2006.
[137]
J. T. Robinson, M. Zalalutdinov, J. W. Baldwin et al., “Wafer-scale reduced graphene oxide films for nanomechanical devices,” Nano Letters, vol. 8, no. 10, pp. 3441–3445, 2008.
[138]
S. Shivaraman, R. A. Barton, X. Yu et al., “Free-standing epitaxial graphene,” Nano Letters, vol. 9, no. 9, pp. 3100–3105, 2009.
[139]
R. A. Barton, B. Ilic, A. M. Van Der Zande et al., “High, size-dependent quality factor in an array of graphene mechanical resonators,” Nano Letters, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 1232–1236, 2011.
[140]
T. Ohta, A. Bostwick, T. Seyller, K. Horn, and E. Rotenberg, “Controlling the electronic structure of bilayer graphene,” Science, vol. 313, no. 5789, pp. 951–954, 2006.
[141]
J. B. Oostinga, H. B. Heersche, X. Liu, A. F. Morpurgo, and L. M. K. Vandersypen, “Gate-induced insulating state in bilayer graphene devices,” Nature Materials, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 151–157, 2008.
[142]
M. Y. Han, B. ?zyilmaz, Y. Zhang, and P. Kim, “Energy band-gap engineering of graphene nanoribbons,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 98, no. 20, 2007.
[143]
X. Li, X. Wang, L. Zhang, S. Lee, and H. Dai, “Chemically derived, ultrasmooth graphene nanoribbon semiconductors,” Science, vol. 319, no. 5867, pp. 1229–1232, 2008.
[144]
R. Balog, B. J?rgensen, L. Nilsson et al., “Bandgap opening in graphene induced by patterned hydrogen adsorption,” Nature Materials, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 315–319, 2010.
[145]
L. Liao, Y. C. Lin, M. Bao et al., “High-speed graphene transistors with a self-aligned nanowire gate,” Nature, vol. 467, no. 7313, pp. 305–308, 2010.
[146]
K. Chung, C.-H. Lee, and G.-C. Yi, “Transferable GaN layers grown on ZnO-coated graphene layers for optoelectronic devices,” Science, vol. 330, no. 6004, pp. 655–657, 2010.
[147]
G. Jo, M. Choe, C.-Y. Cho, et al., “Large-scale patterned multi-layer graphene films as transparent conducting electrodes for GaN light-emitting diodes,” Nanotechnology, vol. 21, no. 17, article 175201, 2010.
[148]
P. Matyba, H. Yamaguchi, G. Eda, M. Chhowalla, L. Edman, and N. D. Robinson, “Graphene and mobile ions: the key to all-plastic, solution-processed light-emitting devices,” ACS Nano, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 637–642, 2010.
[149]
Y. Wang, X. Chen, Y. Zhong, F. Zhu, and K. P. Loh, “Large area, continuous, few-layered graphene as anodes in organic photovoltaic devices,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 95, no. 6, 2009.
[150]
S. Wang, B. M. Goh, K. K. Manga, Q. Bao, P. Yang, and K. P. Loh, “Graphene as atomic template and structural scaffold in the synthesis of graphene-organic hybrid wire with photovoltaic properties,” ACS Nano, vol. 4, no. 10, pp. 6180–6186, 2010.
[151]
C. X. Guo, H. B. Yang, Z. M. Sheng, Z. S. Lu, Q. L. Song, and C. M. Li, “Layered graphene/quantum dots for photovoltaic devices,” Angewandte Chemie, vol. 49, no. 17, pp. 3014–3017, 2010.
[152]
N. G. Shang, P. Papakonstantinou, M. McMullan et al., “Catalyst-free efficient growth, orientation and biosensing properties of multilayer graphene nanoflake films with sharp edge planes,” Advanced Functional Materials, vol. 18, no. 21, pp. 3506–3514, 2008.
[153]
F. Schedin, A. K. Geim, S. V. Morozov et al., “Detection of individual gas molecules adsorbed on graphene,” Nature Materials, vol. 6, no. 9, pp. 652–655, 2007.
[154]
N. Mohanty and V. Berry, “Graphene-based single-bacterium resolution biodevice and DNA transistor: interfacing graphene derivatives with nanoscale and microscale biocomponents,” Nano Letters, vol. 8, no. 12, pp. 4469–4476, 2008.
[155]
C. Lee, X. Wei, J. W. Kysar, and J. Hone, “Measurement of the elastic properties and intrinsic strength of monolayer graphene,” Science, vol. 321, no. 5887, pp. 385–388, 2008.
[156]
D. J. Frank, R. H. Dennard, E. Nowak, P. M. Solomon, Y. Taur, and H. S. P. Wong, “Device scaling limits of Si MOSFETs and their application dependencies,” Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 89, no. 3, pp. 259–287, 2001.
[157]
G. Fiori and G. Iannaccone, “On the possibility of tunable-fap bilayer graphene FET,” IEEE Electron Device Letters, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 261–264, 2009.
[158]
E. McCann, “Asymmetry gap in the electronic band structure of bilayer graphene,” Physical Review B, vol. 74, no. 16, 2006.
[159]
V. M. Pereira and A. H. Castro Neto, “Strain engineering of graphene's electronic structure,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 103, no. 4, Article ID 046801, 2009.
[160]
F. Guinea, M. I. Katsnelson, and A. K. Geim, “Energy gaps and a zero-field quantum hall effect in graphene by strain engineering,” Nature Physics, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 30–33, 2010.
[161]
N. Levy, S. A. Burke, K. L. Meaker et al., “Strain-induced pseudo-magnetic fields greater than 300 tesla in graphene nanobubbles,” Science, vol. 329, no. 5991, pp. 544–547, 2010.
[162]
J. Bai, X. Zhong, S. Jiang, Y. Huang, and X. Duan, “Graphene nanomesh,” Nature Nanotechnology, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 190–194, 2010.
[163]
I. Meric, M. Y. Han, A. F. Young, B. Ozyilmaz, P. Kim, and K. L. Shepard, “Current saturation in zero-bandgap, top-gated graphene field-effect transistors,” Nature Nanotechnology, vol. 3, no. 11, pp. 654–659, 2008.
[164]
Y. M. Lin, K. A. Jenkins, V. G. Alberto, J. P. Small, D. B. Farmer, and P. Avouris, “Operation of graphene transistors at giqahertz frequencies,” Nano Letters, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 422–426, 2009.
[165]
Y. M. Lin, C. Dimitrakopoulos, K. A. Jenkins et al., “100-GHz transistors from wafer-scale epitaxial graphene,” Science, vol. 327, no. 5966, p. 662, 2010.
[166]
A. Luican, G. Li, and E. Y. Andrei, “Quantized Landau level spectrum and its density dependence in graphene,” Physical Review B, vol. 83, no. 4, article 041405, 2011.
[167]
C. Casiraghi, S. Pisana, K. S. Novoselov, A. K. Geim, and A. C. Ferrari, “Raman fingerprint of charged impurities in graphene,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 91, no. 23, Article ID 233108, 2007.
[168]
S. H. Keshmiri, M. Rezaee-Roknabadi, and S. Ashok, “A novel technique for increasing electron mobility of indium-tin-oxide transparent conducting films,” Thin Solid Films, vol. 413, no. 1-2, pp. 167–170, 2002.
[169]
B. Groenendaal, F. Jonas, D. Freitag, H. Pielartzik, and J. R. Reynolds, “Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) and its derivatives: past, present, and future,” Advanced Materials, vol. 12, no. 7, pp. 481–494, 2000.
[170]
T. Mueller, F. Xia, and P. Avouris, “Graphene photodetectors for high-speed optical communications,” Nature Photonics, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 297–301, 2010.
[171]
B. J. Kim, M. A. Mastro, J. Hite, C. R. Eddy, and J. Kim, “Transparent conductive graphene electrode in GaN-based ultra-violet light emitting diodes,” Optics Express, vol. 18, no. 22, pp. 23030–23034, 2010.
[172]
S. Tongay, T. Schumann, X. Miao, B. R. Appleton, and A. F. Hebard, “Tuning Schottky diodes at the many-layer-graphene/semiconductor interface by doping,” Carbon, vol. 49, no. 6, pp. 2033–2038, 2011.
[173]
X. Li, H. Zhu, K. Wang et al., “Graphene-on-silicon schottky junction solar cells,” Advanced Materials, vol. 22, no. 25, pp. 2743–2748, 2010.
[174]
K. Ihm, J. T. Lim, K.-J. Lee et al., “Number of graphene layers as a modulator of the open-circuit voltage of graphene-based solar cell,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 97, no. 3, article 032113, 2010.
[175]
Y. Shi, K. K. Kim, A. Reina, M. Hofmann, L. J. Li, and J. Kong, “Work function engineering of graphene electrode via chemical doping,” ACS Nano, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 2689–2694, 2010.
[176]
Y. H. Ng, I. V. Lightcap, K. Goodwin, M. Matsumura, and P. V. Kamat, “To what extent do graphene scaffolds improve the photovoltaic and photocatalytic response of TiO2 nanostructured films?” Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, vol. 1, no. 15, pp. 2222–2227, 2010.
[177]
M. Choe, B. H. Lee, G. Jo et al., “Efficient bulk-heterojunction photovoltaic cells with transparent multi-layer graphene electrodes,” Organic Electronics, vol. 11, no. 11, pp. 1864–1869, 2010.
[178]
G. Jo, S.-I. Na, S.-H. Oh et al., “Tuning of a graphene-electrode work function to enhance the efficiency of organic bulk heterojunction photovoltaic cells with an inverted structure,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 97, no. 21, 2010.
[179]
L. Gomez De Arco, Y. Zhang, C. W. Schlenker, K. Ryu, M. E. Thompson, and C. Zhou, “Continuous, highly flexible, and transparent graphene films by chemical vapor deposition for organic photovoltaics,” ACS Nano, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 2865–2873, 2010.
[180]
Q. Liu, Z. Liu, X. Zhong, et al., “Polymer photovoltaic cells based on solution-processable graphene and P3HT,” Advanced Functional Materials, vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 894–904, 2009.
[181]
Z. Liu, D. He, Y. Wang, H. Wu, and J. Wang, “Graphene doping of P3HT:PCBM photovoltaic devices,” Synthetic Metals, vol. 160, no. 9-10, pp. 1036–1039, 2010.
[182]
Y. Li, Y. Hu, Y. Zhao et al., “An electrochemical avenue to green-luminescent graphene quantum dots as potential electron-acceptors for photovoltaics,” Advanced Materials, vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 776–780, 2011.
[183]
M. Liang and L. Zhi, “Graphene-based electrode materials for rechargeable lithium batteries,” Journal of Materials Chemistry, vol. 19, no. 33, pp. 5871–5878, 2009.
[184]
M. Pumera, “Electrochemistry of gaphene: new horizons for sensing and energy storage,” Chemical Record, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 211–223, 2009.
[185]
C. Shan, H. Yang, J. Song, D. Han, A. Ivaska, and L. Niu, “Direct electrochemistry of glucose oxidase and biosensing for glucose based on graphene,” Analytical Chemistry, vol. 81, no. 6, pp. 2378–2382, 2009.
[186]
S. Alwarappan, A. Erdem, C. Liu, and C. Z. Li, “Probing the electrochemical properties of graphene nanosheets for biosensing applications,” Journal of Physical Chemistry C, vol. 113, no. 20, pp. 8853–8857, 2009.
[187]
Y. Wang, Y. Li, L. Tang, J. Lu, and J. Li, “Application of graphene-modified electrode for selective detection of dopamine,” Electrochemistry Communications, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 889–892, 2009.
[188]
M. Zhou, Y. Zhai, and S. Dong, “Electrochemical sensing and biosensing platform based on chemically reduced graphene oxide,” Analytical Chemistry, vol. 81, no. 14, pp. 5603–5613, 2009.
[189]
J. Kong, N. R. Franklin, C. Zhou et al., “Nanotube molecular wires as chemical sensors,” Science, vol. 287, no. 5453, pp. 622–625, 2000.
[190]
J. Sippel-Oakley, H. T. Wang, B. S. Kang et al., “Carbon nanotube films for room temperature hydrogen sensing,” Nanotechnology, vol. 16, no. 10, pp. 2218–2221, 2005.
[191]
A. Star, T. R. Han, V. Joshi, J. C. P. Gabriel, and G. Grüner, “Nanoelectronic carbon dioxide sensors,” Advanced Materials, vol. 16, no. 22, pp. 2049–2052, 2004.
[192]
R. Arsat, M. Breedon, M. Shafiei et al., “Graphene-like nano-sheets for surface acoustic wave gas sensor applications,” Chemical Physics Letters, vol. 467, no. 4–6, pp. 344–347, 2009.
[193]
Y. Dan, Y. Lu, N. J. Kybert, Z. Luo, and A. T. C. Johnson, “Intrinsic response of graphene vapor sensors,” Nano Letters, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 1472–1475, 2009.
[194]
J. D. Fowler, M. J. Allen, V. C. Tung, Y. Yang, R. B. Kaner, and B. H. Weiller, “Practical chemical sensors from chemically derived graphene,” ACS Nano, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 301–306, 2009.
[195]
G. Lu, L. E. Ocola, and J. Chen, “Gas detection using low-temperature reduced graphene oxide sheets,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 94, no. 8, 2009.
[196]
M. Qazi, T. Vogt, and G. Koley, “Trace gas detection using nanostructured graphite layers,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 91, no. 23, 2007.
[197]
J. T. Robinson, F. K. Perkins, E. S. Snow, Z. Wei, and P. E. Sheehan, “Reduced graphene oxide molecular sensors,” Nano Letters, vol. 8, no. 10, pp. 3137–3140, 2008.
[198]
Z. M. Ao, J. Yang, S. Li, and Q. Jiang, “Enhancement of CO detection in Al doped graphene,” Chemical Physics Letters, vol. 461, no. 4–6, pp. 276–279, 2008.
[199]
Y.-H. Zhang, Y.-B. Chen, K.-G. Zhou et al., “Improving gas sensing properties of graphene by introducing dopants and defects: a first-principles study,” Nanotechnology, vol. 20, no. 18, article 185504, 2009.
[200]
L. Tang, Y. Wang, Y. Li, H. Feng, J. Lu, and J. Li, “Preparation, structure, and electrochemical properties of reduced graphene sheet films,” Advanced Functional Materials, vol. 19, no. 17, pp. 2782–2789, 2009.
[201]
C. E. Banks, M. R. Moore, T. J. Davies, and R. G. Compton, “Investigation of modified basal plane pyrolytic graphite electrodes: definitive evidence for the electrocatalytic properties of the ends of carbon nanotubes,” Chemical Communications, vol. 10, no. 16, pp. 1804–1805, 2004.
[202]
X. Kang, J. Wang, H. Wu, J. Liu, I. A. Aksay, and Y. Lin, “A graphene-based electrochemical sensor for sensitive detection of paracetamol,” Talanta, vol. 81, no. 3, pp. 754–759, 2010.
[203]
C. Fu, W. Yang, X. Chen, and D. G. Evans, “Direct electrochemistry of glucose oxidase on a graphite nanosheet-Nafion composite film modified electrode,” Electrochemistry Communications, vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 997–1000, 2009.
[204]
A. J. Patil, J. L. Vickery, T. B. Scott, and S. Mann, “Aqueous stabilization and self-assembly of craphene sheets into layered bio-nanocomposites using DNA,” Advanced Materials, vol. 21, no. 31, pp. 3159–3164, 2009.
[205]
Y. Ohno, K. Maehashi, Y. Yamashiro, and K. Matsumoto, “Electrolyte-gated graphene field-effect transistors for detecting ph and protein adsorption,” Nano Letters, vol. 9, no. 9, pp. 3318–3322, 2009.
[206]
Y. Ohno, K. Maehashi, and K. Matsumoto, “Label-free biosensors based on aptamer-modified graphene field-effect transistors,” Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 132, no. 51, pp. 18012–18013, 2010.