The present study evaluates the aerosol optical property computing performance of the Regional Climate Model (RegCM4) which is interactively coupled with anthropogenic-desert dust schemes, in South Africa. The validation was carried out by comparing RegCM4 estimated: aerosol extinction coefficient profile, Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD), and Single Scattering Albedo (SSA) with AERONET, LIDAR, and MISR observations. The results showed that the magnitudes of simulated AOD at the Skukuza station (24°S, 31°E) are within the standard deviation of AERONET and ±25% of MISR observations. Within the latitudinal range of 26.5°S to 24.5°S, simulated AOD and SSA values are within the standard deviation of MISR retrievals. However, within the latitude range of 33.5°S to 27°S, the model exhibited enhanced AOD and SSA values when compared with MISR observations. This is primarily associated with the dry bias in simulated precipitation that leads to the overestimation of dust emission and underestimation of aerosol wet deposition. With respect to LIDAR, the model performed well in capturing the major aerosol extinction profiles. Overall, the results showed that RegCM4 has a good ability in reproducing the major observational features of aerosol optical fields over the area of interest. 1. Introduction Atmospheric aerosols which originate from different natural events (e.g., wind-blown dust and sea salt particles) and human activities such as combustion of biomass and fossil fuels, as well as various industrial processes (e.g., sulfates, nitrates, ammonium, and carbonaceous aerosols) are ubiquitous in the Earth’s atmosphere [1]. Relative to the well mixed and long-lived greenhouse gases, one of the main typical properties of atmospheric aerosols is their immense diversity, not only with respect to their physicochemical and optical properties, but also with regards to their spatial and temporal distributions (e.g., [2]). This is attributed to their diverse local source mechanisms, rapid aging, and chemical transformation processes, as well as short lifetime [3]. Though, owing to these heterogeneous properties of aerosols, the quantification of their climatic roles remains with large uncertainties; they are increasingly reported as one of the crucial components of the atmosphere for multi-climatic issues ([4] and references therein). Primarily, atmospheric aerosols play an important role in modulating the regional radiation budget either through scattering or absorption of radiation (direct effects) (e.g., [5]). The perturbation of the radiation balance of the Earth through
References
[1]
J. E. Penner, M. Andreae, H. Annegarn, et al., “Aerosols, their direct and indirect effects,” in Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, J. T. Houghton, Y. Ding, D. J. Griggs, et al., Eds., pp. 289–348, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2001.
[2]
M. Tesfaye, V. Sivakumar, J. Botai, and G. M. Tsidu, “Aerosol climatology over South Africa based on 10 years of multiangle imaging spectroradiometer (MISR) data,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 116, no. 20, Article ID D20216, 2011.
[3]
D. T. Shindell, H. Levy II, M. D. Schwarzkopf, L. W. Horowitz, J.-F. Lamarque, and G. Faluvegi, “Multi-model projections of climate change from short-lived emissions due to human activities,” Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 113, Article ID D11109, 2008.
[4]
IPCC, “IPCC fourth assessment report (AR4),” in Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning et al., Eds., p. 996, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2007.
[5]
J. Haywood and O. Boucher, “Estimates of the direct and indirect radiative forcing due to tropospheric aerosols: a review,” Reviews of Geophysics, vol. 38, no. 4, pp. 513–543, 2000.
[6]
J. Hansen, M. Sato, R. Ruedy, et al., “Efficacy of climate forcings,” Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 110, Article ID D18104, 2005.
[7]
J. Hansen, M. Sato, and R. Ruedy, “Radiative forcing and climate response,” Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 102, no. 6, pp. 6831–6864, 1997.
[8]
P. Forster, V. Ramaswamy, P. Artaxo, et al., “Changes in atmospheric constituents and in radiative forcing,” in Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, et al., Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2007.
[9]
A. S. Ackerman, O. B. Toon, D. E. Stevens, A. J. Heymsfield, V. Ramanathan, and E. J. Welton, “Reduction of tropical cloudiness by soot,” Science, vol. 288, no. 5468, pp. 1042–1047, 2000.
[10]
R. L. Miller and I. Tegen, “Climate response to soil dust aerosols,” Journal of Climate, vol. 11, no. 12, pp. 3247–3267, 1998.
[11]
M. Z. Jacobson, “Control of fossil-fuel particulate black carbon and organic matter, possibly the most effective method of slowing global warming,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 107, no. D19, p. 4410, 2005.
[12]
I. Koren, Y. J. Kaufman, L. A. Remer, and J. V. Martins, “Measurement of the effect of Amazon smoke on inhibition of cloud formation,” Science, vol. 303, no. 5662, pp. 1342–1345, 2004.
[13]
J. Cook and E. J. Highwood, “Climate response to tropospheric absorbing aerosols in an intermediate general-circulation model,” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, vol. 130, no. 596, pp. 175–191, 2004.
[14]
Y. Zhang, The radiative effect of aerosols from biomass burning on the transition from dry to wet season over the Amazon as tested by a regional climate model [Ph.D. thesis], Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Ga, USA, 2008.
[15]
C. E. Chung, V. Ramanathan, and J. T. Kiehl, “Effects of the South Asian absorbing haze on the northeast monsoon and surface-air heat exchange,” Journal of Climate, vol. 15, no. 17, pp. 2462–2476, 2002.
[16]
B. T. Johnson, K. P. Shine, and P. M. Forster, “The semi-direct aerosol effect: impact of absorbing aerosols on marine stratocumulus,” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, vol. 130, no. 599, pp. 1407–1422, 2004.
[17]
G. Feingold, H. Jiang, and J. Y. Harrington, “On smoke suppression of clouds in Amazonia,” Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 32, no. 2, Article ID L02804, 2005.
[18]
J. E. Penner, S. Y. Zhang, and C. C. Chuang, “Soot and smoke aerosol may not warm climate,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 108, no. 21, pp. 1–9, 2003.
[19]
D. Koch and A. D. Del Genio, “Black carbon semi-direct effects on cloud cover: review and synthesis,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 10, no. 16, pp. 7685–7696, 2010.
[20]
R. J. Allen and S. C. Sherwood, “Aerosol-cloud semi-direct effect and land-sea temperature contrast in a GCM,” Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 37, no. 7, Article ID L07702, 2010.
[21]
S. Twomey, “The influence of pollution on the shortwave albedo of clouds,” Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, vol. 34, pp. 1149–1152, 1977.
[22]
B. A. Albrecht, “Aerosols, cloud microphysics, and fractional cloudiness,” Science, vol. 245, no. 4923, pp. 1227–1230, 1989.
[23]
U. Lohmann and J. Feichter, “Global indirect aerosol effects: a review,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 715–737, 2005.
[24]
F. J. Dentener, G. R. Carmichael, Y. Zhang, J. Lelieveld, and P. J. Crutzen, “Role of mineral aerosol as a reactive surface in the global troposphere,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 101, no. 17, pp. 22869–22889, 1996.
[25]
R. R. Dickerson, S. Kondragunta, G. Stenchikov, K. L. Civerolo, B. G. Doddridge, and B. N. Holben, “The impact of aerosols on solar ultraviolet radiation and photochemical smog,” Science, vol. 278, no. 5339, pp. 827–830, 1997.
[26]
W. L. Chameides, H. Yu, S. C. Liu et al., “Case study of the effects of atmospheric aerosols and regional haze on agriculture: an opportunity to enhance crop yields in China through emission controls?” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 96, no. 24, pp. 13626–13633, 1999.
[27]
H. R. Anderson, “Differential epidemiology of ambient aerosols,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, vol. 358, no. 1775, pp. 2771–2785, 2000.
[28]
G. Oberdorster, J. Finkelstein, J. Ferin et al., “Ultrafine particles as a potential environmental health hazard: studies with model particles,” Chest, vol. 109, no. 3, 1996.
[29]
F. Solmon, F. Giorgi, and C. Liousse, “Aerosol modelling for regional climate studies: application to anthropogenic particles and evaluation over a European/African domain,” Tellus, Series B, vol. 58, no. 1, pp. 51–72, 2006.
[30]
B. Croft, J. R. Pierce, R. V. Martin, C. Hoose, and U. Lohmann, “Uncertainty associated with convective wet removal of entrained aerosols in a global climate model,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 12, pp. 10725–10748, 2012.
[31]
N. Oshima, Y. Kondo, N. Moteki et al., “Wet removal of black carbon in Asian outflow: Aerosol Radiative Forcing in East Asia (A-FORCE) aircraft campaign,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 117, no. 3, Article ID D03204, 2012.
[32]
D. T. Shindell, M. Chin, F. Dentener et al., “A multi-model assessment of pollution transport to the Arctic,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 8, no. 17, pp. 5353–5372, 2008.
[33]
V. Ramanathan, P. J. Crutzen, J. Lelieveld et al., “Indian ocean experiment: an integrated analysis of the climate forcing and effects of the great Indo-Asian haze,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 106, no. 22, pp. 28371–28398, 2001.
[34]
D. Rind, M. Chin, G. Feingold, et al., “Modeling the effects of aerosols on climate,” in Atmospheric Aerosol Properties and Impacts on Climate, A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research, M. Chin, R. A. Kahn, and S. E. Schwartz, Eds., pp. 64–97, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2009.
[35]
E. Hirst, P. H. Kaye, R. S. Greenaway, P. Field, and D. W. Johnson, “Discrimination of micrometre-sized ice and super-cooled droplets in mixed-phase cloud,” Atmospheric Environment, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 33–47, 2001.
[36]
D. J. Diner, B. H. Braswell, R. Davies et al., “The value of multiangle measurements for retrieving structurally and radiatively consistent properties of clouds, aerosols, and surfaces,” Remote Sensing of Environment, vol. 97, no. 4, pp. 495–518, 2005.
[37]
R. Kahn, P. Banerjee, and D. McDonald, “Sensitivity of multiangle imaging to natural mixtures of aerosols over ocean,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 106, no. 16, pp. 18219–18238, 2001.
[38]
R. A. Kahn, M. J. Garay, D. L. Nelson et al., “Satellite-derived aerosol optical depth over dark water from MISR and MODIS: comparisons with AERONET and implications for climatological studies,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 112, no. 18, Article ID D18205, 2007.
[39]
A. S. Goudie and N. J. Middleton, Desert Dust in the Global System, Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2006.
[40]
M. Chin, P. Ginoux, S. Kinne et al., “Tropospheric aerosol optical thickness from the GOCART model and comparisons with satellite and sun photometer measurements,” Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, vol. 59, no. 3, pp. 461–483, 2002.
[41]
S. H. Chung and J. H. Seinfeld, “Global distribution and climate forcing of carbonaceous aerosols,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 107, no. 19, pp. 14–33, 2002.
[42]
Y. Qian, F. Giorgi, Y. Huang, W. Chameides, and C. Luo, “Regional simulation of anthropogenic sulfur over East Asia and its sensitivity to model parameters,” Tellus, Series B, vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 171–191, 2001.
[43]
F. Giorgi, X. Bi, and Y. Qian, “Direct radiative forcing and regional climatic effects of anthropogenic aerosols over East Asia: a regional coupled climate-chemistry/aerosol model study,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 107, no. 20, pp. 7–18, 2002.
[44]
F. Giorgi, X. Bi, and Y. Qian, “Indirect vs. direct effects of anthropogenic sulfate on the climate of east Asia as simulated with a regional coupled climate-chemistry/aerosol model,” Climatic Change, vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 345–376, 2003.
[45]
A. M. L. Ekman and H. Rodhe, “Regional temperature response due to indirect sulfate aerosol forcing: impact of model resolution,” Climate Dynamics, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 1–10, 2003.
[46]
T. Takemura, T. Nakajima, T. Nozawa, and K. Aoki, “Simulation of future aerosol distribution, radiative forcing, and long-range transport in East Asia,” Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan, vol. 79, no. 6, pp. 1139–1155, 2001.
[47]
I. Tegen, M. Werner, S. P. Harrison, and K. E. Kohfeld, “Relative importance of climate and land use in determining present and future global soil dust emission,” Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 31, no. 5, pp. L05105–4, 2004.
[48]
A. Baklanov, B. Fay, G. Weather, et al., “Overview of existing integrated (off-line and on-line) mesoscale systems in Europe,” report of Working Group 2, 2007, http://www.cost728.org/.
[49]
A. Baklanov, A. Mahura, and R. Sokhi, Integrated Systems of Meso-Meteorological and Chemical Transport Models, Springer, New York, NY, USA, 2011.
[50]
F. Giorgi, E. Coppola, F. Solmon, et al., “RegCM4: model description and preliminary tests over multiple CORDEX domains,” Climate Research, vol. 52, pp. 7–29, 2012.
[51]
M. Kanakidou, J. H. Seinfeld, S. N. Pandis et al., “Organic aerosol and global climate modelling: a review,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 1053–1123, 2005.
[52]
X. Liu, J. E. Penner, B. Das et al., “Uncertainties in global aerosol simulations: assessment using three meteorological data sets,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 112, no. 11, Article ID D11212, 2007.
[53]
E. Vignati, M. Karl, M. Krol, J. Wilson, P. Stier, and F. Cavalli, “Sources of uncertainties in modelling black carbon at the global scale,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 10, no. 6, pp. 2595–2611, 2010.
[54]
L. Lee, K. J. Pringle, C. L. Reddington, et al., “The magnitude and causes of uncertainty in global model simulations of cloud condensation nuclei,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 13, pp. 6295–6378, 2013.
[55]
G. Myhre, F. Stordal, T. F. Berglen, J. K. Sundet, and I. S. A. Isaksen, “Uncertainties in the radiative forcing due to sulphate aerosols,” Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, vol. 61, no. 5, pp. 485–498, 2004.
[56]
M. Schulz, C. Textor, S. Kinne et al., “Radiative forcing by aerosols as derived from the AeroCom present-day and pre-industrial simulations,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 6, no. 12, pp. 5225–5246, 2006.
[57]
H. Tost, M. G. Lawrence, C. Brühl, and P. J？ckel, “Uncertainties in atmospheric chemistry modelling due to convection parameterisations and subsequent scavenging,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 1931–1951, 2010.
[58]
P. Stier, N. A. J. Schutgens, N. Bellouin, et al., “Host model uncertainties in aerosol radiative forcing estimates: results from the AeroCom prescribed inter-comparison study,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 13, pp. 3245–3270, 2013.
[59]
F. Giorgi and M. R. Marinucci, “An investigation of the sensitivity of simulated precipitation to model resolution and its implications for climate studies,” Monthly Weather Review, vol. 124, no. 1, pp. 148–166, 1996.
[60]
F. Giorgi and C. Shields, “Tests of precipitation parameterizations available in latest version of NCAR regional climate model (RegCM) over continental United States,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 104, no. 6, pp. 6353–6375, 1999.
[61]
F. Giorgi and R. O. Anyah, “Evolution of regional climate modeling: the road towards RegCM4,” Climate Research, vol. 52, pp. 3–6, 2012.
[62]
M. Z. Jacobson, Developing, coupling, and applying a gas, aerosol, transport, and radiation model to study urban and regional air pollution [Ph.D. thesis], Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, Calif, USA, 1994.
[63]
A. S. Zakey, F. Solmon, and F. Giorgi, “Implementation and testing of a desert dust module in a regional climate model,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 6, no. 12, pp. 4687–4704, 2006.
[64]
A. S. Zakey, F. Giorgi, and X. Bi, “Modeling of sea salt in a regional climate model: fluxes and radiative forcing,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 113, no. 14, Article ID D14221, 2008.
[65]
P. Zanis, C. Douvis, I. Kapsomenakis, I. Kioutsioukis, D. Melas, and J. S. Pal, “A sensitivity study of the Regional Climate Model (RegCM3) to the convective scheme with emphasis in central eastern and southeastern Europe,” Theoretical and Applied Climatology, vol. 97, no. 3-4, pp. 327–337, 2009.
[66]
Y. Zhang, X.-Y. Wen, and C. J. Jang, “Simulating chemistry-aerosol-cloud-radiation-climate feedbacks over the continental U.S. using the online-coupled Weather Research Forecasting Model with chemistry (WRF/Chem),” Atmospheric Environment, vol. 44, no. 29, pp. 3568–3582, 2010.
[67]
F. Solmon, M. Mallet, N. Elguindi, F. Giorgi, A. Zakey, and A. Konaré, “Dust aerosol impact on regional precipitation over western Africa, mechanisms and sensitivity to absorption properties,” Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 35, no. 24, Article ID L24705, 2008.
[68]
F. Solmon, N. Elguindi, and M. Mallet, “Radiative and climatic effects of dust over West Africa, as simulated by a regional climate model,” Climate Research, vol. 52, pp. 97–113, 2012.
[69]
F. Tummon, F. Solmon, C. Liousse, and M. Tadross, “Simulation of the direct and semidirect aerosol effects on the southern Africa regional climate during the biomass burning season,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 115, no. 19, Article ID D19206, 2010.
[70]
A. Konare, A. S. Zakey, F. Solmon et al., “A regional climate modeling study of the effect of desert dust on the West African monsoon,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 113, no. 12, Article ID D12206, 2008.
[71]
F. Malavelle, V. Pont, M. Mallet et al., “Simulation of aerosol radiative effects over West Africa during DABEX and AMMA SOP-0,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 116, no. 8, Article ID D08205, 2011.
[72]
Eskom, “Effects of atmospheric pollution on the Mpumalanga Highveld,” Power Technology No. 70, Eskom Technology Group, Cleveland, South Africa, 1996.
[73]
R. Spalding-Fecher and D. K. Matibe, “Electricity and externalities in South Africa,” Energy Policy, vol. 31, no. 8, pp. 721–734, 2003.
[74]
K. E. Ross, S. J. Piketh, R. T. Bruintjes, R. P. Burger, R. J. Swap, and H. J. Annegarn, “Spatial and aerosol variations in CCN distribution and the aerosol-CCN relationship over southern Africa,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 108, no. 13, pp. 1–18, 2003.
[75]
A. J. Mills, A. V. Milewski, C. Sirami, et al., “Aerosol capture by small trees in savannas marginal to treeless grassland in South Africa,” Geoderma, vol. 189-190, pp. 124–132, 2012.
[76]
H. Winkler, P. Formenti, D. J. Esterhuyse et al., “Evidence for large-scale transport of biomass burning aerosols from sunphotometry at a remote South African site,” Atmospheric Environment, vol. 42, no. 22, pp. 5569–5578, 2008.
[77]
A. J. Queface, S. J. Piketh, T. F. Eck, S.-C. Tsay, and A. F. Mavume, “Climatology of aerosol optical properties in Southern Africa,” Atmospheric Environment, vol. 45, no. 17, pp. 2910–2921, 2011.
[78]
B. I. Magi, “Chemical apportionment of southern African aerosol mass and optical depth,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 9, no. 19, pp. 7643–7655, 2009.
[79]
M. Tesfaye, V. Sivakumar, J. Botai, and G. Mengistu, “Latitudinal variations of aerosol optical parameters over South Africa based on MISR satellite data,” in Proceedings of the 26th Annual Conference of South African Society for Atmosphere Science, pp. 105–106, September 2010.
[80]
F. Tummon, Direct and semi-direct aerosol effects on the southern African regional climate during the austral winter season [Ph.D. thesis], University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, 2011.
[81]
B. I. Magi, P. Ginoux, Y. Ming, and V. Ramaswamy, “Evaluation of tropical and extratropical Southern Hemisphere African aerosol properties simulated by a climate model,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 114, no. 14, Article ID D14204, 2009.
[82]
T. F. Eck, B. N. Holben, D. E. Ward et al., “Variability of biomass burning aerosol optical characteristics in southern Africa during the SAFARI 2000 dry season campaign and a comparison of single scattering albedo estimates from radiometric measurements,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 108, no. 13, pp. 1–21, 2003.
[83]
R. J. Swap, H. J. Annegarn, J. T. Suttles et al., “The Southern African Regional Science Initiative (SAFARI 2000): overview of the dry season field campaign,” South African Journal of Science, vol. 98, no. 3-4, pp. 125–130, 2002.
[84]
R. J. Swap, H. J. Annegarn, J. T. Suttles et al., “Africa burning: a thematic analysis of the Southern African Regional Science Initiative (SAFARI 2000),” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 108, no. 13, pp. 1–15, 2003.
[85]
S. J. Piketh, H. J. Annegarn, and P. D. Tyson, “Lower tropospheric aerosol loadings over South Africa: the relative contribution of aeolian dust, industrial emissions, and biomass burning,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 104, no. 1, pp. 1597–1607, 1999.
[86]
J. M. Prospero, P. Ginoux, O. Torres, S. E. Nicholson, and T. E. Gill, “Environmental characterization of global sources of atmospheric soil dust identified with the Nimbus 7 Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) absorbing aerosol product,” Reviews of Geophysics, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. -1–31, 2002.
[87]
O. Dubovik and M. D. King, “A flexible inversion algorithm for retrieval of aerosol optical properties from Sun and sky radiance measurements,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 105, no. 16, pp. 20673–20696, 2000.
[88]
C. Levoni, M. Cervino, R. Guzzi, and F. Torricella, “Atmospheric aerosol optical properties: a database of radiative characteristics for different components and classes,” Applied Optics, vol. 36, no. 30, pp. 8031–8041, 1997.
[89]
M. I. Mishchenko and L. D. Travis, Light Scattering by Non-Spherical Particles, Academic Press, San-Diego, Calif, USA, 2000.
[90]
M. Hess, P. Koepke, and I. Schult, “Optical properties of aerosols and clouds: the software package OPAC,” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, vol. 79, no. 5, pp. 831–844, 1998.
[91]
E. Andrews, P. J. Sheridan, M. Fiebig, et al., “Comparison of methods for deriving aerosol asymmetry parameter,” Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 111, no. D5, Article ID D05S04, 2006.
[92]
T. Takemura, T. Nakajima, O. Dubovik, B. N. Holben, and S. Kinne, “Single-scattering albedo and radiative forcing of various aerosol species with a global three-dimensional model,” Journal of Climate, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 333–352, 2002.
[93]
J. H. Seinfeld and S. N. Pandis, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate, Wiley, New York, NY, USA, 2006.
[94]
O. Dubovik, A. Smirnov, B. N. Holben et al., “Accuracy assessments of aerosol optical properties retrieved from Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) Sun and sky radiance measurements,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 105, no. 8, pp. 9791–9806, 2000.
[95]
H. Yu, Y. J. Kaufman, M. Chin et al., “A review of measurement-based assessments of the aerosol direct radiative effect and forcing,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 613–666, 2006.
[96]
Y. J. Kaufman, D. Tanré, L. A. Remer, E. F. Vermote, A. Chu, and B. N. Holben, “Operational remote sensing of tropospheric aerosol over land from EOS moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 102, no. 14, pp. 17051–17067, 1997.
[97]
P. Chylek, B. Henderson, and M. Mishchenko, “Aerosol radiative forcing and the accuracy of satellite aerosol optical depth retrieval,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 108, no. 24, pp. 4–8, 2003.
[98]
D. Tanré, Y. J. Kaufman, M. Herman, and S. Mattoo, “Remote sensing of aerosol properties over oceans using the MODIS/EOS spectral radiances,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 102, no. 14, pp. 16971–16988, 1997.
[99]
R. A. Kahn, B. J. Gaitley, J. V. Martonchik, D. J. Diner, K. A. Crean, and B. Holben, “Multiangle Imaging Spectroradiometer (MISR) global aerosol optical depth validation based on 2 years of coincident Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) observations,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 110, no. 10, pp. 1–16, 2005.
[100]
O. V. Kalashnikova, R. Kahn, I. N. Sokolik, and W.-H. Li, “Ability of multiangle remote sensing observations to identify and distinguish mineral dust types: optical models and retrievals of optically thick plumes,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 110, no. 18, Article ID D18S14, pp. 1–16, 2005.
[101]
A. De Meij, M. Krol, F. Dentener, E. Vignati, C. Cuvelier, and P. Thunis, “The sensitivity of aerosol in Europe to two different emission inventories and temporal distribution of emissions,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 6, no. 12, pp. 4287–4309, 2006.
[102]
N. Mahowald, K. Kohfeld, M. Hansson et al., “Dust sources and deposition during the last glacial maximum and current climate: a comparison of model results with paleodata from ice cores and marine sediments,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 104, no. 13, pp. 15895–15916, 1999.
[103]
Y. J. Kaufman, D. Tanré, and O. Boucher, “A satellite view of aerosols in the climate system,” Nature, vol. 419, no. 6903, pp. 215–223, 2002.
[104]
D. J. Diner, T. P. Ackerman, T. L. Anderson, et al., “Paragon: an integrated approach for characterizing aerosol climate impacts and environmental interactions,” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, vol. 85, pp. 14911–11501, 2004.
[105]
J. E. Penner, S. Y. Zhang, M. Chin et al., “A comparison of model- and satellite-derived aerosol optical depth and reflectivity,” Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, vol. 59, no. 3, pp. 441–460, 2002.
[106]
R. E. Dickinson, R. M. Errico, F. Giorgi, and G. T. Bates, “A regional climate model for the western United States,” Climatic Change, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 383–422, 1989.
[107]
J. T. Kiehl, J. J. Hack, G. B. Bonan, et al., “Description of the ncar community climate model (ccm3),” Tech. Rep. NCAR/TN-420+STR, National Center for Atmospheric Research, 1996.
[108]
X. Zeng, M. Zhao, and R. E. Dickinson, “Intercomparison of bulk aerodynamic algorithms for the computation of sea surface fluxes using TOGA COARE and TAO data,” Journal of Climate, vol. 11, no. 10, pp. 2628–2644, 1998.
[109]
R. E. Dickinson, A. Henderson-Sellers, and P. J. Kennedy, “Biosphere-atmosphere transfer scheme (bats) version 1e as coupled to the ncar community climate model,” Tech. Rep. NCAR/TN-387+STR, National Center for Atmospheric Research, 1993.
[110]
F. Giorgi, R. Francisco, and J. Pal, “Effects of a subgrid-scale topography and land use scheme on the simulation of surface climate and hydrology. Part 1: effects of temperature and water vapor disaggregation,” Journal of Hydrometeorology, vol. 4, pp. 317–333, 2003.
[111]
A. A. M. Holtslag, E. I. F. De Bruijn, and H.-L. Pan, “A high resolution air mass transformation model for short-range weather forecasting,” Monthly Weather Review, vol. 118, no. 8, pp. 1561–1575, 1990.
[112]
G. A. Grell, “Prognostic evaluation of assumptions used by cumulus parameterizations,” Monthly Weather Review, vol. 121, no. 3, pp. 764–787, 1993.
[113]
J. M. Fritsch and C. F. Chappell, “Numerical prediction of convectively driven mesoscale pressure systems. Part I: convective parameterization,” Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, vol. 37, no. 8, pp. 1722–1733, 1980.
[114]
J. S. Pal, E. E. Small, and E. A. B. Eltahir, “Simulation of regional-scale water and energy budgets: representation of subgrid cloud and precipitation processes within RegCM,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 105, no. 24, pp. 29579–29594, 2000.
[115]
Y. Huang, W. L. Chameides, Q. Tan, and R. E. Dickinson, “Characteristics of anthropogenic sulfate and carbonaceous aerosols over East Asia: regional modeling and observation,” Advances in Atmospheric Sciences, vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 946–959, 2008.
[116]
D. F. Zhang, A. S. Zakey, X. J. Gao, F. Giorgi, and F. Solmon, “Simulation of dust aerosol and its regional feedbacks over East Asia using a regional climate model,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 1095–1110, 2009.
[117]
M. Santese, M. R. Perrone, A. S. Zakey, F. De Tomasi, and F. Giorgi, “Modeling of Saharan dust outbreaks over the mediterranean by RegCM3: case studies,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 133–156, 2010.
[118]
M. Tesfaye, et al., “Mineral dust aerosol distributions, its direct and semi-direct effects over South Africa based on regional climate model simulation,” submitted to a peer-reviewed journal and currently, 2013, ftp://ftp.csir.co.za/NLC/EE/.
[119]
M. Tesfaye, et al., “Simulation of anthropogenic aerosols mass distributions and their direct and semi-direct effects over South Africa using RegCM4,” submitted to a peer-reviewed journal and currently, 2013, ftp://ftp.csir.co.za/NLC/EE/.
[120]
M. Tesfaye, et al., “Simulation of biomass burning aerosols mass distributions and their direct and semi-direct effects over South Africa using a regional climate model,” submitted to a peer-reviewed journal and currently, 2013, ftp://ftp.csir.co.za/NLC/EE/.
[121]
M. Tesfaye, et al., “Simulation of bulk aerosol direct and semi-direct effects in South Africa using RegCM4,” submitted to a peer-reviewed journal and currently, 2013, ftp://ftp.csir.co.za/NLC/EE/.
[122]
C. Liousse, F. Dulac, H. Cachier, and D. Tanré, “Remote sensing of carbonaceous aerosol production by African savanna biomass burning,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 102, no. 5, pp. 5895–5911, 1997.
[123]
S. Fuzzi, M. O. Andreae, B. J. Huebert et al., “Critical assessment of the current state of scientific knowledge, terminology, and research needs concerning the role of organic aerosols in the atmosphere, climate, and global change,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 6, no. 7, pp. 2017–2038, 2006.
[124]
G. Lesins, P. Chylek, and U. Lohmann, “A study of internal and external mixing scenarios and its effect on aerosol optical properties and direct radiative forcing,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 107, no. 9-10, pp. 5–1, 2002.
[125]
S. E. Bauer and D. Koch, “Impact of heterogeneous sulfate formation at mineral dust surfaces on aerosol loads and radiative forcing in the Goddard Institute for Space Studies general circulation model,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 110, no. 17, Article ID D17202, pp. 91–105, 2005.
[126]
M. Z. Jacobson, “Strong radiative heating due to the mixing state of black carbon in atmospheric aerosols,” Nature, vol. 409, no. 6821, pp. 695–697, 2001.
[127]
R. C. Moffet and K. A. Prather, “In-situ measurements of the mixing state and optical properties of soot with implications for radiative forcing estimates,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 106, no. 29, pp. 11872–11877, 2009.
[128]
G. McFiggans, P. Artaxo, U. Baltensperger et al., “The effect of physical and chemical aerosol properties on warm cloud droplet activation,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 6, no. 9, pp. 2593–2649, 2006.
[129]
M. Tesfaye, M. Tsidu, V. Sivakumar, and J. Botai, “Effective single scattering albedo estimation using regional climate model,” in Proceedings of the 27th Annual Conference of the South African Society for Atmospheric Sciences: The Interdependent Atmosphere, Land and Ocean, Hartbeespoort, pp. 53–54, September 2011.
[130]
M. Tesfaye, Retrival of atmospheric aerosol optical and microphysical parameters from ground base passive remote sensing measurement over Addis Ababa [M.S. thesis], Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2009.
[131]
J.-F. Lamarque, T. C. Bond, V. Eyring et al., “Historical (1850–2000) gridded anthropogenic and biomass burning emissions of reactive gases and aerosols: methodology and application,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 10, no. 15, pp. 7017–7039, 2010.
[132]
G. R. van der Werf, J. T. Randerson, L. Giglio et al., “Global fire emissions and the contribution of deforestation, savanna, forest, agricultural, and peat fires (1997–2009),” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 10, no. 23, pp. 11707–11735, 2010.
[133]
L. Giglio, J. T. Randerson, G. R. Van Der Werf et al., “Assessing variability and long-term trends in burned area by merging multiple satellite fire products,” Biogeosciences, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 1171–1186, 2010.
[134]
G. R. van der Werf, J. T. Randerson, L. Giglio, G. J. Collatz, P. S. Kasibhatla, and A. F. Arellano Jr., “Interannual variability in global biomass burning emissions from 1997 to 2004,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 6, no. 11, pp. 3423–3441, 2006.
[135]
A. Seth and F. Giorgi, “The effects of domain choice on summer precipitation simulation and sensitivity in a regional climate model,” Journal of Climate, vol. 11, no. 10, pp. 2698–2712, 1998.
[136]
X. Wang, Z. Zhong, Y. Hu, and H. Yuan, “Effect of lateral boundary scheme on the simulation of tropical cyclone track in regional climate model RegCM3,” Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences, vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 221–230, 2010.
[137]
A. Simmons, S. Uppala, D. Dee, and S. Kobayashi, “ERA-Interim: new ECMWF reanalysis products from 1989 onwards,” ECMWF Newsletter, vol. 110, pp. 25–35, 2007.
[138]
D. P. Dee, S. M. Uppala, A. J. Simmons et al., “The ERA-Interim reanalysis: configuration and performance of the data assimilation system,” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, vol. 137, no. 656, pp. 553–597, 2011.
[139]
R. W. Reynolds, N. A. Rayner, T. M. Smith, D. C. Stokes, and W. Wang, “An improved in situ and satellite SST analysis for climate,” Journal of Climate, vol. 15, no. 13, pp. 1609–1625, 2002.
[140]
B. N. Holben, T. F. Eck, I. Slutsker et al., “AERONET—a federated instrument network and data archive for aerosol characterization,” Remote Sensing of Environment, vol. 66, no. 1, pp. 1–16, 1998.
[141]
O. Dubovik, M. Herman, A. Holdak et al., “Statistically optimized inversion algorithm for enhanced retrieval of aerosol properties from spectral multi-angle polarimetric satellite observations,” Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 975–1018, 2011.
[142]
D. J. Diner, G. P. Asner, R. Davies et al., “New directions in earth observing: scientific applications of multiangle remote sensing,” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, vol. 80, no. 11, pp. 2209–2228, 1999.
[143]
J. V. Martonchik, D. J. Diner, R. A. Kahn et al., “Techniques for the retrieval of aerosol properties over land and ocean using multiangle imaging,” IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 1212–1227, 1998.
[144]
J. V. Martonchik, D. J. Diner, K. A. Crean, and M. A. Bull, “Regional aerosol retrieval results from MISR,” IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, vol. 40, no. 7, pp. 1520–1531, 2002.
[145]
O. V. Kalashnikova and R. Kahn, “Ability of multiangle remote sensing observations to identify and distinguish mineral dust types: 2. Sensitivity over dark water,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 111, no. 11, Article ID D11207, 2006.
[146]
A. Sharma, V. Sivakumar, C. Bollig, C. Van Der Westhuizen, and D. Moema, “System description of the mobile LIDAR of the CSIR, South Africa,” South African Journal of Science, vol. 105, no. 11-12, pp. 456–462, 2009.
[147]
V. Sivakumar, M. Tesfaye, W. Alemu et al., “CSIR South Africa mobile LIDAR-first scientific results: comparison with satellite, sun photometer and model simulations,” South African Journal of Science, vol. 105, no. 11-12, pp. 449–455, 2009.
[148]
V. Sivakumar, M. Tesfaye, W. Alemu, A. Sharma, C. Bollig, and G. Mengistu, “Aerosol measurements over South Africa using LIDAR, Satellite and Sun Photometer,” in Advances in Geosciences, 16, Atmospheric Science, chapter 22, pp. 253–262, World Scientific, 2010.
[149]
M. Tesfaye, V. Sivakumar, J. Botai, et al., “Retrieval of relative humidity from CSIR-NLC mobile LIDAR backscatter measurements,” in Proceedings of the 25th Annual Conference of South African society for Atmosphere Science, September 2009.
[150]
M. Tesfaye, V. Sivakumar, G. Mengistu, et al., “Atmospheric Aerosol load morphological classification and retrieved visibility based on lidar backscatter measurement,” in Proceedings of the 25th International Laser Radar Conference, pp. 487–490, Saint Pietersburg, Russia, 2010.
[151]
J. R. Campbell, E. J. Welton, J. D. Spinhirne et al., “Micropulse lidar observations of tropospheric aerosols over northeastern South Africa during the ARREX and SAFARI 2000 dry season experiments,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 108, no. 13, pp. 1–33, 2003.
[152]
D. E. Terblanche, M. P. Mittermaier, S. J. Piketh, R. T. Bruintjes, and R. P. Burger, “The Aerosol Recirculation and Rainfall Experiment (ARREX): an initial study on aerosol-cloud interactions over South Africa,” South African Journal of Science, vol. 96, no. 1, pp. 15–21, 2000.
[153]
G.-J. Roelofs, H. Ten Brink, A. Kiendler-Scharr et al., “Evaluation of simulated aerosol properties with the aerosol-climate model ECHAM5-HAM using observations from the IMPACT field campaign,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 10, no. 16, pp. 7709–7722, 2010.
[154]
V. Ramanathan and M. V. Ramana, “Persistent, widespread, and strongly absorbing haze over the Himalayan foothills and the Indo-Gangetic Plains,” Pure and Applied Geophysics, vol. 162, no. 8-9, pp. 1609–1626, 2005.
[155]
P. Ginoux, M. Chin, I. Tegen et al., “Sources and distributions of dust aerosols simulated with the GOCART model,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 106, no. 17, pp. 20255–20273, 2001.
[156]
T. Y. Tanaka and M. Chiba, “A numerical study of the contributions of dust source regions to the global dust budget,” Global and Planetary Change, vol. 52, no. 1-4, pp. 88–104, 2006.
[157]
X. Yue, H. Wang, H. Liao, and K. Fan, “Simulation of dust aerosol radiative feedback using the GMOD: 2. Dust-climate interactions,” Journal of Geophysical Research D, vol. 115, no. 4, Article ID D04201, 2010.
[158]
E. M. Wilcox and V. Ramanathan, “The impact of observed precipitation upon the transport of aerosols from South Asia,” Tellus, Series B, vol. 56, no. 5, pp. 435–450, 2004.
[159]
Z. Shi, M. D. Krom, T. D. Jickells, et al., “Impacts on iron solubility in the mineral dust by processes in the source region and the atmosphere: a review,” Aeolian Research, vol. 5, pp. 21–42, 2012.
[160]
A. Bhattachan, P. Dodorico, M. C. Baddock, T. M. Zobeck, G. S. Okin, and N. Cassar, “The Southern Kalahari: a potential new dust source in the Southern Hemisphere?” Environmental Research Letters, vol. 7, no. 2, Article ID 024001, 2012.
[161]
Y. J. Kaufman, D. Tanré, O. Dubovik, A. Karnieli, and L. A. Remer, “Absorption of sunlight by dust as inferred from satellite and ground-based remote sensing,” Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 28, no. 8, pp. 1479–1482, 2001.
[162]
I. Tegen and I. Fung, “Contribution to the atmospheric mineral aerosol load from land surface modification,” Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 100, no. 9, pp. 18–726, 1995.
[163]
M. T. Freiman and S. J. Piketh, “Air transport into and out of the industrial Highveld region of South Africa,” Journal of Applied Meteorology, vol. 42, no. 7, 1002 pages, 2003.
[164]
Y. Wang, L. R. Leung, J. L. McGregor et al., “Regional climate modeling: progress, challenges, and prospects,” Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan, vol. 82, no. 6, pp. 1599–1628, 2004.
[165]
J. Heintzenberg and R. J. Charlson, Clouds in the Perturbed Climate System, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, USA, 2009.
