Approximately, one-third of male adolescents in treatment for a substance use disorder (SUD) also have an Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). This strongly suggests that ADHD is a major risk factor for the development of SUD which practitioners must address if they are to provide adequate treatment for adolescents with SUD/ADHD. This paper supports a causal role for ADHD in the development of SUD and examines the developmental mechanisms whereby ADHD increases risk for SUD. These mechanisms include increased risk for conduct disorder, academic failure, deviant peer affiliation, engaging in risk behaviors, and self-medication. Assessment and treatment recommendations for those comorbid for SUD/ADHD are provided. 1. Introduction Substance use, which includes smoking, drinking alcohol, or using other addictive substances, exists on a continuum ranging from no use on one end, to use that does not involve negative consequences, to risky use, to a substance use disorder (SUD) [1]. SUD is characterized by inability to consistently abstain, impairment of behavioral control, craving, and significant problems in behavior and interpersonal relationships [1]. SUDs are a worldwide major public health problem [2]. In the United States, adolescent substance use is arguably, if not incontestably, the number one public health problem for several reasons [3]. Addictive substance use is widespread as almost half of high school students (46.1 percent) are current users (used in the past 30 days) of cigarettes, alcohol, marijuana, or cocaine; one in eight (11.9 percent) meet clinical criteria for a substance use disorder (SUD) [3]. Adolescence is the critical period for the initiation of substance use and its consequences as nine out of 10 Americans who suffer from a SUD started smoking, drinking, or using other drugs before age 18 [3]. The financial and human consequences are staggering. Financially, the cost is estimated as an astonishing $1500 per year for every person in the United States [3]. The human costs include, in addition to heightened risk of addiction, reduced academic performance and educational achievement; criminal involvement; unintended pregnancies; accidents and injuries which make it among the leading causes of death among youth under 21 [3, 4]. Despite being the most important public health problem, only 15.4% of adolescents with SUD receive treatment [5], and this treatment is generally suboptimal [3]. Indeed, there is such a profound disconnect between evidence and practice that “…the vast majority of people in need of addiction
References
[1]
Center for Addition Substance Abuse at Columbia College, Addiction Medicine: Closing the Gap between Science and Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA, 2012.
[2]
K. van Emmerik-van Oortmerssen, G. van de Glind, W. van den Brink et al., “Prevalence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in substance use disorder patients: a meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis,” Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol. 122, no. 1-2, pp. 11–19, 2012.
[3]
Center for Addition Substance Abuse at Columbia College, Adolescent Substance Use: America's #1 Public Health Problem, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA, 2011.
[4]
S. J. Becker and J. F. Curry, “Outpatient interventions for adolescent substance abuse: a quality of evidence review,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, vol. 76, no. 4, pp. 531–543, 2008.
[5]
K. R. Merikangas, J. P. He, M. Burstein et al., “Service utilization for lifetime mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: results of the national comorbidity surveyAdolescent supplement (NCS-A),” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 32–45, 2011.
[6]
M. Dennis, S. H. Godley, G. Diamond et al., “The Cannabis Youth Treatment (CYT) Study: main findings from two randomized trials,” Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 197–213, 2004.
[7]
F. Perepletchikova, J. H. Krystal, and J. Kaufman, “Practitioner review: adolescent alcohol use disorders: assessment and treatment issues,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, vol. 49, no. 11, pp. 1131–1154, 2008.
[8]
S. Henggeler, M. McCart, P. Cunningham, and J. Chapman, “Enhancing the effectiveness of juvenile drug courts by integrating evidence-based practices,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, vol. 80, pp. 264–275, 2012.
[9]
P. J. Yuma-Guerrero, K. A. Lawson, M. M. Velasquez, K. Von Sternberg, T. Maxson, and N. Garcia, “Screening, brief intervention, and referral for alcohol use in adolescents: a systematic review,” Pediatrics, vol. 130, no. 1, pp. 115–122, 2012.
[10]
N. Volkow, Comorbidity: Addiction and Other Mental Illnesses, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Washington, DC, USA, 2009.
[11]
E. H. Hawkins, “A tale of two systems: co-occurring mental health and substance abuse disorders treatment for adolescents,” Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 60, pp. 197–227, 2009.
[12]
T. E. Wilens, “A sobering fact: ADHD leads to substance abuse,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 6–8, 2011.
[13]
T. Wilens, “Current controversies in ADHD: diagnosis, treatment and comorbid substance abuse,” Neuropsychiatry, vol. 1, pp. 115–121, 2011.
[14]
P. D. Riggs, T. Winhusen, R. D. Davies et al., “Randomized controlled trial of osmotic release methylphenidate with-cognitive behavioral therapy in adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and substance use disorders,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, vol. 50, pp. 903–914, 2011.
[15]
B. Molina, “Delinquency and substance use in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: adolescent and young adult outcomes in developmental context,” in Treating Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, S. Evans and B. Hoza, Eds., pp. 19.1–19.52, Civic Research Institute, Kingston, NJ, USA, 2011.
[16]
M. Wolraich, L. Brown, R. T. Brown et al., “ADHD: clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents,” Pediatrics, vol. 128, no. 5, pp. 1007–1022, 2011.
[17]
S. Visser, H. Bitsko, L. Danielson, and R. Perou, “Increasing prevalence of parent-reported attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among children—United States, 2003 and 2007,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, vol. 59, no. 44, pp. 1439–1443, 2010.
[18]
T. E. Wilens and N. R. Morrison, “The intersection of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and substance abuse,” Current Opinion in Psychiatry, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 280–285, 2011.
[19]
K. Conrad, K. Conrad, J. Mazza et al., “Dimensionality, hierarchical structure, age generalizability, and criterion validity of the GAIN’s behavioral complexity scale,” Psychological Assessment. In press.
[20]
L. A. Teplin, K. M. Abram, G. M. McClelland, M. K. Dulcan, and A. A. Mericle, “Psychiatric disorders in youth in juvenile detention,” Archives of General Psychiatry, vol. 59, no. 12, pp. 1133–1143, 2002.
[21]
M. E. Schwab-Stone, D. Shaffer, M. K. Dulcan et al., “Criterion validity of the NIMH diagnostic interview schedule for children version 2.3 (DISC-2.3),” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, vol. 35, no. 7, 1996.
[22]
R. Barkley, Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Guilford Press, New York, NY, USA, 3rd edition, 2006.
[23]
R. Barkley, K. Murphy, and M. Fischer, ADHD in Adults, Guilford Press, New York, NY, USA, 2008.
[24]
R. C. Kessler, J. G. Green, L. A. Adler et al., “Structure and diagnosis of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: analysis of expanded symptom criteria from the adult ADHD clinical diagnostic scale,” Archives of General Psychiatry, vol. 67, no. 11, pp. 1168–1178, 2010.
[25]
S. J. Young, M. Adamou, B. Bolea et al., “The identification and management of ADHD offenders within the criminal justice system: a consensus statement from the UK Adult ADHD Network and criminal justice agencies,” BMC Psychiatry, vol. 11, article 32, 2011.
[26]
A. Charach, E. Yeung, T. Climans, and E. Lillie, “Childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and future substance use disorders: comparative meta-analyses,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 9–21, 2011.
[27]
S. S. Lee, K. L. Humphreys, K. Flory, R. Liu, and K. Glass, “Prospective association of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and substance use and abuse/dependence: a meta-analytic review,” Clinical Psychology Review, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 328–341, 2011.
[28]
P. J. Frick, “Developmental pathways to conduct disorder: implications for future research, assessment, and treatment,” Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 378–389, 2012.
[29]
R. Loeber and J. D. Burke, “Developmental pathways in juvenile externalizing and internalizing problems,” Journal of Research on Adolescence, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 34–46, 2011.
[30]
American Psychiatric Association. Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, 2012, http://www.dsm5.org/ProposedRevision/Pages/proposedrevision.aspx?rid=383.
[31]
R. Barkley, “Deficient emotional self-regulation: a core component of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder,” Journal of ADHD and Related Disorders, vol. 1, pp. 5–37, 2010.
[32]
E. Willcutt, J. Nigg, B. Pennington et al., “Validity of DSM-IV attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptom dimensions and subtypes,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology. In press.
[33]
J. D. Burke, R. Loeber, B. B. Lahey, and P. J. Rathouz, “Developmental transitions among affective and behavioral disorders in adolescent boys,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, vol. 46, no. 11, pp. 1200–1210, 2005.
[34]
D. F. Connor and L. A. Doerfler, “ADHD with comorbid oppositional defiant disorder or conduct disorder: discrete or nondistinct disruptive behavior disorders?” Journal of Attention Disorders, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 126–134, 2008.
[35]
R. Loeber, J. Burke, and D. A. Pardini, “Perspectives on oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and psychopathic features,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, vol. 50, no. 1-2, pp. 133–142, 2009.
[36]
D. A. Waschbusch, “A meta-analytic examination of comorbid hyperactive-impulsive-attention problems and conduct problems,” Psychological Bulletin, vol. 128, no. 1, pp. 118–149, 2002.
[37]
P. J. Frick and J. T. Nigg, “Current issues in the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder,” Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, vol. 8, pp. 77–107, 2012.
[38]
P. J. Frick and E. Viding, “Antisocial behavior from a developmental psychopathology perspective,” Development and Psychopathology, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 1111–1131, 2009.
[39]
G. L. Burns and J. A. Walsh, “The influence of ADHD-hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms on the development of oppositional defiant disorder symptoms in a 2-year longitudinal study,” Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 245–256, 2002.
[40]
B. Lahey and W. Waldman, “Personality dispositions and the development of violence and conduct problems,” in The Cambridge Handbook of Violent Behavior and Aggression, D. Flannery, A. Vazsonyi, and I. Waldman, Eds., pp. 260–287, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, USA, 2008.
[41]
P. A. C. van Lier, J. van der Ende, H. M. Koot, and F. C. Verhulst, “Which better predicts conduct problems? The relationship of trajectories of conduct problems with ODD and ADHD symptoms from childhood into adolescence,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, vol. 48, no. 6, pp. 601–608, 2007.
[42]
W. E. Pelham and G. A. Fabiano, “Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder,” Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 184–214, 2008.
[43]
T. E. Moffitt, L. Arseneault, D. Belsky et al., “A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 108, no. 7, pp. 2693–2698, 2011.
[44]
A. T. Vazsonyi and L. Huang, “Where self-control theory comes from: on the development of self-control and its relationship to deviance over time,” Developmental Psychology, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 245–257, 2010.
[45]
D. Farrington, “Conduct disorder, aggression, and delinquency,” in Handbook of Adolescent Psychology, Individual Bases of Adolescent Development, R. Lerner and L. Steinberg, Eds., vol. 1, pp. 683–721, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, USA, 2009.
[46]
P. Frick and M. Marsee, “Psychopathy and developmental pathways to antisocial behavior in youth,” in Handbook of Psychopathy, C. Patrick, Ed., pp. 353–374, Guilford Press, New York, NY, USA, 2006.
[47]
B. B. Lahey, R. Loeber, J. D. Burke, and B. Applegate, “Predicting future antisocial personality disorder in males from a clinical assessment in childhood,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, vol. 73, no. 3, pp. 389–399, 2005.
[48]
T. E. Moffitt, L. Arseneault, S. R. Jaffee et al., “Research Review: DSM-V conduct disorder: research needs for an evidence base,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 3–33, 2008.
[49]
J. D. Burke, I. Waldman, and B. B. Lahey, “predictive validity of childhood oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder: implications for the DSM-V,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology, vol. 119, no. 4, pp. 739–751, 2010.
[50]
D. M. Dick, “Gene-environment interaction in psychological traits and disorders,” Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, vol. 7, pp. 383–409, 2011.
[51]
M. H. Meier, W. S. Slutske, S. Arndt, and R. J. Cadoret, “Impulsive and callous traits are more strongly associated with delinquency behavior in higher risk neighborhoods among boys and girls,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology, vol. 117, no. 2, pp. 377–385, 2008.
[52]
J. Murray and D. P. Farrington, “Risk factors for conduct disorder and delinquency: key findings from longitudinal studies,” Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 55, no. 10, pp. 633–642, 2010.
[53]
S. E. Hampson, J. A. Andrews, and M. Barckley, “Childhood predictors of adolescent marijuana use: early sensation-seeking, deviant peer affiliation, and social images,” Addictive Behaviors, vol. 33, no. 9, pp. 1140–1147, 2008.
[54]
M. P. Marshal and B. S. G. Molina, “Antisocial behaviors moderate the deviant peer pathway to substance use in children with ADHD,” Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 216–226, 2006.
[55]
S. R. Jaffee, L. B. Strait, and C. L. Odgers, “From correlates to causes: can quasi-experimental studies and statistical innovations bring us closer to identifying the causes of antisocial behavior?” Psychological Bulletin, vol. 138, no. 2, pp. 272–295, 2012.
[56]
A. Stringaris and R. Goodman, “Three dimensions of oppositionality in youth,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, vol. 50, no. 3, pp. 216–223, 2009.
[57]
T. P. Beauchaine, S. P. Hinshaw, and K. L. Pang, “Comorbidity of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and early-onset conduct disorder,” Clinical Psychology, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 327–336, 2010.
[58]
P. Frick and T. Moffitt, A proposal to the DSM-V childhood disorders and the ADHD and disruptive behavior disorders work groups to include a specifier to the diagnosis of conduct disorder based on the prevalence of callous-unemotional traits, 2010, http://www.dsm5.org/Proposed%20Revision%20Attachments/Proposal%20for%20Callous%20and%20Unemotional%20Specifier%20of%20Conduct%20Disorder.pdf.
[59]
R. G. Klein, H. Abikoff, E. Klass, D. Ganeles, L. M. Seese, and S. Pollack, “Clinical efficacy of methylphenidate in conduct disorder with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder,” Archives of General Psychiatry, vol. 54, no. 12, pp. 1073–1080, 1997.
[60]
R. McMahon and P. Frick, “Conduct and oppositional disorders,” in Assessment of Childhood Disorders, E. Mash and R. Barkley, Eds., pp. 131–183, Guilford Press, New York, NY, USA, 4th edition, 2007.
[61]
B. Molina, Drug abuse in youth with ADHD, Attention, 2012.
[62]
I. J. Elkins, M. McGue, and W. G. Iacono, “Prospective effects of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, and sex on adolescent substance use and abuse,” Archives of General Psychiatry, vol. 64, no. 10, pp. 1145–1152, 2007.
[63]
C. Galéra, M. P. Bouvard, A. Messiah, and E. Fombonne, “Hyperactivity-inattention symptoms in childhood and substance use in adolescence: the youth gazel cohort,” Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol. 94, no. 1–3, pp. 30–37, 2008.
[64]
J. M. Jester, J. T. Nigg, A. Buu et al., “Trajectories of childhood aggression and inattention/hyperactivity: differential effects on substance abuse in adolescence,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, vol. 47, no. 10, pp. 1158–1165, 2008.
[65]
C. M. Szobot and O. Bukstein, “Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and substance use disorders,” Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 309–323, 2008.
[66]
Smoking and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, American Professional Society of ADHD and Related Disorders: Updates in ADHD: Current Concepts and Future Developments, 2009.
[67]
F. Aboitz and F. Castellanos, “Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, catecholamines, and the “default mode” of brain function: a reassessment of the dopaminergic hypothesis of ADHD,” in InTreating Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, S. Evans and B. Hoza, Eds., pp. 2.1–2.13, Civic Research Institute, Kingston, NJ, USA, 2011.
[68]
D. Tomasi and N. D. Volkow, “Abnormal functional connectivity in children with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder,” Biological Psychiatry, vol. 71, no. 5, pp. 443–450, 2012.
[69]
G. F. Koob and M. Le Moal, “Addiction and the brain antireward system,” Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 59, pp. 29–53, 2008.
[70]
K. H. Taber, D. N. Black, L. J. Porrino, and R. A. Hurley, “Neuroanatomy of dopamine: reward and addiction,” Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 1–4, 2012.
[71]
N. D. Volkow and M. Muenke, “The genetics of addiction,” Human Genetics, vol. 131, no. 6, pp. 773–777, 2012.
[72]
N. D. Volkow and J. M. Swanson, “Does childhood treatment of ADHD with stimulant medication affect substance abuse in adulthood?” American Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 165, no. 5, pp. 553–555, 2008.
[73]
S. H. Kollins, “ADHD, substance use disorders, and psychostimulant treatment: current literature and treatment guidelines,” Journal of Attention Disorders, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 115–125, 2008.
[74]
S. Kollins, Where there’s smoke, Attention, 2012.
[75]
N. D. Volkow and R. D. Baler, “Neuroscience: to stop or not to stop?” Science, vol. 335, no. 6068, pp. 546–548, 2012.
[76]
M. Arcos-Burgos, J. I. Vélez, B. D. Solomon, and M. Muenke, “A common genetic network underlies substance use disorders and disruptive or externalizing disorders,” Human Genetics, vol. 131, no. 6, pp. 917–929, 2012.
[77]
T. Duka, “Deficits in reward system activation and impulsivity: a predisposing condition to alcoholism?” Biological Psychiatry, vol. 69, no. 7, pp. 612–613, 2011.
[78]
C. J. Patrick, C. E. Durbin, and J. S. Moser, “Reconceptualizing antisocial deviance in neurobehavioral terms,” Development and Psychopathology, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 1047–1071, 2012.
[79]
E. Hallowell and J. Ratey, Delivered from Distraction, Ballantine Books, New York, NY, USA, 2005.
[80]
T. E. Wilens and J. Biederman, “Alcohol, drugs, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a model for the study of addictions in youth,” Journal of Psychopharmacology, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 580–588, 2006.
[81]
P. Quinn and P. Harden, “Differential changes in impulsivity and sensation-seeking and the escalation of substance use from adolescence to early adulthood,” Development and Psychopathology. In press.
[82]
K. Rubia, “‘Cool’ inferior frontostriatal dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder versus “hot” ventromedial orbitofrontal-limbic dysfunction in conduct disorder: a review,” Biological Psychiatry, vol. 69, no. 12, pp. e69–e87, 2011.
[83]
K. D. Ersche, P. S. Jones, G. B. Williams, A. J. Turton, T. W. Robbins, and E. T. Bullmore, “Abnormal brain structure implicated in stimulant drug addiction,” Science, vol. 335, no. 6068, pp. 601–604, 2012.
[84]
M. Zuckerman, Sensation Seeking and Risky Behavior, American Psychological Association Press, Washington, DC, USA, 2007.
[85]
T. Frodl, “Comorbidity of adhd and substance use disorder (sud): a neuroimaging perspective,” Journal of Attention Disorders, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 109–120, 2010.
[86]
T. Wilens, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and substance use disorders. American Professional Society of ADHD and Related Disorders: Updates in ADHD :Current Concepts and Future Developments, 2009.
[87]
M. McAweeney, N. L. Rogers, C. Huddleston, D. Moore, and J. P. Gentile, “Symptom prevalence of ADHD in a community residential substance abuse treatment program,” Journal of Attention Disorders, vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 601–608, 2010.
[88]
M. H. Sibley, W. E. Pelham Jr., B. S. Molina et al., “Diagnosing ADHD in adolescence,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, vol. 80, no. 1, pp. 139–150, 2012.
[89]
M. Fatseas, R. Debrabant, and M. Auriacombe, “The diagnostic accuracy of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults with substance use disorders,” Current Opinion in Psychiatry, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 219–225, 2012.
[90]
R. C. Kessler, S. Avenevoli, E. J. Costello et al., “Prevalence, persistence, and sociodemographic correlates of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement,” Archives of General Psychiatry, vol. 69, no. 4, pp. 372–380, 2012.
[91]
J. K. Manuel, H. J. Hagedorn, and J. W. Finney, “Implementing evidence-based psychosocial treatments in specialty substance use disorder care,” Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 225–237, 2011.
[92]
S. Evans and B. Hoza, Treating Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Civic Research Institute, Kingston, NJ, USA, 2011.
[93]
M. Wolraich, L. Brown, R. T. Brown et al., “ADHD: clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents,” Pediatrics, vol. 128, no. 5, 2011.
[94]
T. Wilens and N. Morrison, “Substance-use disorders in adolescents and adults with ADHD: focus on treatment,” Neuropsychiatry, vol. 2, pp. 301–312, 2012.
[95]
J. M. Swanson, H. C. Kraemer, S. P. Hinshaw et al., “Clinical relevance of the primary findings of the MTA: success rates based on severity of ADHD and ODD symptoms at the end of treatment,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 168–179, 2001.
[96]
B. S. G. Molina, S. P. Hinshaw, J. M. Swanson et al., “The MTA at 8 years: prospective follow-up of children treated for combined-type ADHD in a multisite study,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 484–500, 2009.
[97]
T. Wilens, Straight Talk about Psychiatric Medications for Kids, Guilford Press, New York, NY, USA, 2009.
[98]
T. M. Winhusen, D. F. Lewis, P. D. Riggs et al., “Subjective effects, misuse, and adverse effects of osmotic-release methylphenidate treatment in adolescent substance abusers with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder,” Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 455–463, 2011.
[99]
J. J. Mariani and F. R. Levin, “Treatment strategies for co-occurring ADHD and substance use disorders,” American Journal on Addictions, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 45–56, 2007.
[100]
L. Tamm, K. Trello-Rishel, P. Riggs et al., “Predictors of treatment response in adolescents with comorbid substance use disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder,” Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. In press.
