Individuals are known to be highly sensitive to signs of ostracism, such as being ignored or excluded; however, the cognitive, affective, and motivational processes underlying ostracism have remained unclear. We investigated temporal changes in these psychological states resulting from being ostracized by a computer. Using event-related brain potentials (ERPs), the facial electromyogram (EMG), and electroencephalogram (EEG), we focused on the P3b amplitude, corrugator supercilii activity, and frontal EEG asymmetry, which reflect attention directed at stimuli, negative affect, and approach/withdrawal motivation, respectively. Results of the P3b and corrugator supercilii activity replicated findings of previous studies on being ostracized by humans. The mean amplitude of the P3b wave decreased, and facial EMG activity increased over time. In addition, frontal EEG asymmetry changed from relative left frontal activation, suggestive of approach motivation, to relative right frontal activation, indicative of withdrawal motivation. These findings suggest that ostracism by a computer-generated opponent is an aversive experience that in time changes the psychological status of ostracized people, similar to ostracism by human. Our findings also imply that frontal EEG asymmetry is a useful index for investigating ostracism. Results of this study suggest that ostracism has well developed neurobiological foundations. 1. Introduction People are sensitive to social exclusion. Sometimes, a slight social rejection evokes emotional pain in excluded individuals [1–7]. According to an evolutionary perspective, sensitivity to social exclusion is necessary for human survival [4, 8], because social isolation is often a fatal threat [9, 10]. Therefore, humans have developed monitoring systems that are highly sensitive to cues indicative of social exclusion [11, 12]. It is known that people can detect the slightest cue indicative of ostracism and as a result develop aversive feelings. Laboratory studies have demonstrated that ostracism during a computerized ball-tossing game called Cyberball triggers negative affect and lowers the degree to which individuals are able to fulfill their four fundamental needs: belonging, control, self-esteem, and meaningful existence [4]. This effect was observed even when participants knew that the ostracizing others were computer-generated players or when they knew beforehand that they would be ostracized [7]. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have shown that social exclusion provokes social pain, which is reflected in
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