Multivariate Statistical Analyses of Fluoride and Other Physicochemical Parameters in Groundwater Samples of Two Megacities in Asia: Lahore and Sialkot
The present study was carried out to evaluate the current status of contaminants and their sources in groundwater samples collected from Lahore and Sialkot. A total of 93 samples were collected from different localities of Lahore and Sialkot and analyzed for the determination of various physicochemical parameters. The results of the study revealed that mean fluoride and chloride contents of water samples from Lahore were higher than the values recommended by Pak-EPA and WHO whereas the mean nitrate and sulphate levels of these samples were well within the limits. The order observed for these physicochemical parameters from Lahore was Cl？ > alkalinity > > > F？. All the observed physicochemical parameters for water samples from Sialkot were found to be greater than those of Lahore, due to a more intensive industrial activity in Sialkot. The correlation study revealed the strongest correlation among conductance and alkalinity in samples from both cities. Fluoride and sulphate were found to be positively correlated in samples from Lahore and negatively correlated in samples from Sialkot. Multivariate analysis in terms of principle component analysis and cluster analysis furnished information about the sources of various parameters in groundwater samples. 1. Introduction The dynamic balance in the aquatic ecosystem is upset by human activities thereby resulting in its pollution which is manifested dramatically as fish kill, offensive odor, color, and taste, and unchecked aquatic weeds. Fresh, clean water has thus become a scarce commodity. The quality of groundwater depends on various chemical constituents and their concentrations, which are mostly derived from the geological data of the particular region but industrial and municipal wastes also contribute significantly towards it. In fact, high rate of exploration, inappropriate dumping of solid and liquid wastes, and lack of strict enforcement of law have caused the deterioration of groundwater quality [1–6]. In Pakistan, the major sources of drinking water are groundwater and surface water from rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. The indiscriminate disposal of agricultural, industrial, and domestic wastewater into these natural water bodies has caused their serious contamination that has been shown to be associated with deterioration of human health [7–11]. In Lahore and Sialkot, the only source of drinking water available to the public at large is only groundwater, and that too has been contaminated by various anthropogenic activities. Among the physico-chemical parameters, fluoride is one of the important
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