Seasonal habitat selection by the reintroduced Burwash elk population, approximately 30？km south of Sudbury, Ontario, has been analysed in order to assist in the development of future management. Twenty-five adult females were radio-collared and tracked 1–3 times a week for 3 years. The most prominent patterns included selection of intolerant hardwood forests (trembling aspen, white birch, and balsam poplar) during all seasons, while Great Lakes-St. Lawrence pines (white and red pine dominated stands) were used less than expected based on availability for all seasons. The selection patterns are likely associated with seasonal climatic conditions and forage preferences. Because the selection behaviours displayed here varied greatly from other elk habitat studies, it is suggested that managers consider the importance of population-specific habitat studies before developing related strategies. 1. Introduction Historically, elk (Cervus elaphus) were distributed across many regions of Canada [1–3]. Due to human competition for land, throughout the 1800s, elk populations across North America were severely depressed and extirpated in some areas [2]. After unsuccessful attempts to reintroduce elk into Ontario in the 1930s and 1940s, more recent (1998–2001) reintroductions resulted in the successful establishment of elk populations including those introduced to the Burwash region, approximately 30？km south of Sudbury, Ontario [4–8]. Now considered acclimated to their surroundings in Burwash [9], habitat selection of this population must be assessed in order to assist in management strategies. Elk habitat selection has been well documented throughout much of the species’ Western range in North America [10–16]. Many factors influence elk habitat selection, including food availability and quality, shelter, cover, predator avoidance, temperature, water availability, elevation, slope, and snow conditions [17–19]. Density of conspecifics may also influence selection [20, 21]. Habitat use in relation to forest cover and productive foraging habitats has been well studied in elk [22–27]; however, selection of forest cover types in heterogeneous forest structures remains less clear. Habitat use decisions vary with resource availability, and the knowledge of regional habitat selection is important for wildlife management strategies [28]. Habitat selection by the Burwash elk population has been previously studied; however, many of its aspects are still in need for examination. It has long been accepted that habitat selection is a hierarchical process that may vary with
References
[1]
O. Murie, The Elk of North America, Stackpole Company, Harrisburg, Pa, USA, 1951.
[2]
L. Bryant and C. Maser, “Classification and distribution,” in North American Elk: Ecology and Management, J. W. Thomas and D. Toweill, Eds., pp. 1–60, Stakepole Books, Harrisburg, Pa, USA, 1982.
[3]
J. Peek, “Wapiti (Cervus elaphus),” in Wild Mammals of North America, Biology, Management and Conservation, G. Feldhamer, B. Thompson, and J. Chapman, Eds., pp. 877–905, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Md, USA, 2003.
[4]
B. O'Gara and R. Dundas, “Distribution: past and present,” in American Elk, Ecology and Management, D. Toweill and J. W. Thomas, Eds., pp. 67–119, North Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, USA, 2002.
[5]
R. Rosatte, J. Hamr, B. Ranta, J. Young, and N. Cool, “Elk restoration in Ontario, Canada: infectious disease management strategy, 1998–2001,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 969, pp. 358–363, 2002.
[6]
J. Larkin, D. Maehr, J. Cox, D. Bolin, and M. Wichrowski, “Demographic characteristics of a reintroduced elk population in Kentucky,” Journal of Wildlife Management, vol. 67, no. 3, pp. 467–476, 2003.
[7]
J. L. Larkin, J. J. Cox, M. R. Dzialak, M. W. Wichrowski, and D. S. Maehr, “Influences on release-site fidelity of translocated elk,” Restoration Ecology, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 97–105, 2004.
[8]
R. Rosatte, J. Hamr, J. Young, I. Filion, and H. Smith, “The restoration of elk (Cervus elaphus) in Ontario, Canada: 1998–2005,” Restoration Ecology, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 34–43, 2007.
[9]
M. M. Martin, Spatial behaviour and habitat use by elk (Cervus elaphus) in response to highway construction and interprovincial relocation [M.S. thesis], Department of Biology, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Canada, 2011.
[10]
M. S. Boyce, The Jackson Elk Herd: Intensive Wildlife Management in North America, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK, 1989.
[11]
E. H. Merril and M. S. Boyce, “Summer range and elk population dynamics in Yellowstone National Park,” in The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, R. B. Keiter and M. S. Boyce, Eds., pp. 263–273, Yale University, New Haven, Conn, USA, 1991.
[12]
M. Turner, Y. Wu, L. L. Wallace, W. H. Romme, and A. Brenkert, “Simulating winter interactions among ungulates, vegetation, and fire in Northern Yellowstone Park,” Ecological Applications, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 472–496, 1994.
[13]
S. M. Pearson, M. G. Turner, L. L. Wallace, and W. H. Romme, “Winter habitat use by large ungulates following fire in Northern Yellowstone National Park,” Ecological Applications, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 744–755, 1995.
[14]
L. L. Wallace, M. G. Turner, W. H. Romme, R. V. O'Neill, and Y. G. Wu, “Scale of heterogeneity of forage production and winter foraging by elk and bison,” Landscape Ecology, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 75–83, 1995.
[15]
M. S. Boyce, J. S. Mao, E. H. Merrill, et al., “Scale and heterogeneity in habitat selection by elk in Yellowstone National Park,” Ecoscience, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 421–431, 2003.
[16]
S. M. McCorquodale, “Sex-specific movements and habitat use by elk in the cascade range of Washington,” Journal of Wildlife Management, vol. 67, no. 4, pp. 729–741, 2003.
[17]
J. M. Skovlin, “Habitat requirements and evaluations,” in Elk of North America: Ecology and Management, J. W. Thomas and D. E. Toweill, Eds., pp. 369–413, Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa, USA, 1982.
[18]
W. B. Collins and P. J. Urness, “Feeding behavior and habitat selection of mule deer and elk on Northern Utah summer range,” Journal of Wildlife Management, vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 646–663, 1983.
[19]
K. E. Grover and M. J. Thompson, “Factors influencing spring feeding site selection by elk in the Elkhorn Mountains, Montana,” Journal of Wildlife Management, vol. 50, no. 3, pp. 466–470, 1986.
[20]
M. L. Rosenzweig, “Habitat selection, community organization, and small mammal studies,” in Patterns in the Structures of Mammalian Communities, D. W. Morris, Z. Abramsky, B. J. Fox, and M. R. Texas, Eds., pp. 5–21, Tech University Press, Lubbock, Tex, USA, 1989.
[21]
P. D. McLoughlin, M. S. Boyce, T. Coulson, and T. Clutton-Brock, “Lifetime reproductive success and density-dependent, multi-variable resource selection,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B, vol. 273, no. 1593, pp. 1449–1454, 2006.
[22]
G. W. Witmer and D. S. Decalesta, “Habitat use by female roosevelt elk Cervus-elaphus-roosevelti in the Oregon USA Coast Range,” Journal of Wildlife Management, vol. 47, no. 4, pp. 933–939, 1983.
[23]
B. Bobek, M. S. Boyce, and M. Kosobucka, “Factors affecting red deer Cervus elaphus population density in Southeastern Poland,” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 881–890, 1984.
[24]
A. A. Ager, B. K. Johnson, J. W. Kern, and J. G. Kie, “Daily and seasonal movements and habitat use by female Rocky Mountain elk and mule deer,” Journal of Mammalogy, vol. 84, no. 3, pp. 1076–1088, 2003.
[25]
G. L. Schroer, K. J. Jenkins, and B. B. Moorhead, “Roosevelt elk selection of temperate rain forest seral stages in Western Washington,” Northwest Science, vol. 67, no. 1, pp. 23–29, 1993.
[26]
J. M. Vore, T. L. Hartman, and A. K. Wood, “Elk habitat selection and winter range vegetation management in Northwest Montana,” Intermountain Journal of Sciences, vol. 13, pp. 86–97, 2007.
[27]
M. Zhang, Z. Liu, and L. Teng, “Seasonal habitat selection of the red deer (Cervus elaphus alxaicus) in the Helan Mountains, China,” Zoologia (Curitiba), vol. 30, pp. 24–34, 2013.
[28]
D. P. Anderson, M. G. Turner, J. D. Forester, et al., “Scale-dependent summer resource selection by reintroduced elk in Wisconsin, USA,” Journal of Wildlife Management, vol. 69, pp. 298–310, 2005.
[29]
D. H. Johnson, “The comparison of usage and availability measurements for evaluating resource preference,” Ecology, vol. 61, pp. 65–71, 1980.
[30]
A. M. Kittle, J. M. Fryxell, J. E. Desy, and J. Hamr, “The scale-dependent impact of wolf predation risk on resource selection by three sympatric ungulates,” Oecologia, vol. 157, no. 1, pp. 163–175, 2008.
[31]
M. Jost, J. Hamr, I. Filion, and F. F. Mallory, “Forage selection by elk in habitats common to the French River—Burwash region of Ontario,” Canadian Journal of Zoology, vol. 77, no. 9, pp. 1429–1438, 1999.
[32]
G. S. Brown, Spatial behaviour and habitat utilzation of Wapiti (Cervus elaphus) in the French River and Burwash Regions of Ontario [M.S. thesis], Department of Biology, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Canada, 1998.
[33]
M. A. Jost, Forage utilization by Wapiti (Cervus elaphus) in the French River and Burwash Regions of Ontario [M.S. thesis], Department of Biology, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Canada, 1997.
[34]
L. L. Irwin and J. M. Peek, “Elk habitat use relative to forest succession in Idaho,” Journal of Wildlife Management, vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 664–672, 1983.
[35]
J. W. Unsworth, L. Kuck, E. O. Garton, and B. R. Butterfield, “Elk habitat selection on the Clearwater National Forest, Idaho,” Journal of Wildlife Management, vol. 62, no. 4, pp. 1255–1263, 1998.
[36]
J. S. Mao, M. S. Boyce, D. W. Smith, et al., “Habitat selection by elk before and after wolf reintroduction in Yellowstone National Park,” Journal of Wildlife Management, vol. 69, no. 4, pp. 1691–1707, 2005.
[37]
J. S. Rowe, Forest Regions of Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Ottawa, Canada, 1972.
[38]
B. K. Chambers, K. Legasy, and C. V. Bentley, Forest Plants of Central Ontario, Lone Pine Publishing, Edmonton, Canada, 1996.
[39]
J. L. Vankat, The Natural Vegetation of North America: An Introduction, John Wiley & Sons, Toronto, Canada, 1979.
[40]
M. M. Dillon, Burwash Land Use Study. 8182-01, Ministry of Government Services, 1978.
[41]
B. Ranta, Range and habitat relationships of Wapiti (Cervus canadensis) in the Burwash—French River area of Ontario [M.S. thesis], Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada, 1979.
[42]
G. C. White and R. A. Garrott, Analysis of Wildlife Radio-Tracking Data, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif, USA, 1990.
[43]
K. T. Weber, M. Burcham, and C. L. Marcum, “Assessing independence of animal locations with association matrices,” Journal of Range Management, vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 21–24, 2001.
[44]
D. L. Thomas and E. J. Taylor, “Study designs and tests for comparing resource use and availability,” Journal of Wildlife Management, vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 322–330, 1990.
[45]
J. A. Schaefer, N. Morellet, D. Pépin, and H. Verheyden, “The spatial scale of habitat selection by red deer,” Canadian Journal of Zoology, vol. 86, no. 12, pp. 1337–1345, 2008.
[46]
V. R. Peck and J. M. Peek, “Elk, Cervus elaphus, habitat use related to prescribed fire, Tuchodi River, British Columbia,” Canadian Field-Naturalist, vol. 105, pp. 354–362, 1991.
[47]
M. A. Rumble and R. S. Gamo, “Habitat use by elk (Cervus elaphus) within structural stages of a managed forest of the northcentral United States,” Forest Ecology and Management, vol. 261, no. 6, pp. 958–964, 2011.
[48]
I. M. R. Godvik, L. E. Loe, J. O. Vik, V. Veiberg, R. Langvatn, and A. Mysterud, “Temporal scales, trade-offs, and functional responses in red deer habitat selection,” Ecology, vol. 90, no. 3, pp. 699–710, 2009.
[49]
Z. Bíró, L. Szemethy, K. Katona, M. Heltai, and Z. Pet？, “Seasonal distribution of red deer (Cervus elaphus) in a forest-agriculture habitat in Hungary,” Mammalia, vol. 70, no. 1-2, pp. 70–75, 2006.
[50]
A. M. Licoppe and S. A. de Crombrugghe, “Assessment of spring habitat selection of red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) based on census data,” Zeitschrift fur Jagdwissenschaft, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 1–13, 2003.
[51]
R. R. Knight, “The Sun River elk herd,” Wildlife Monographs, vol. 23, pp. 1–66, 1970.
[52]
G. Jiang, M. Zhang, and J. Ma, “Habitat use and separation between red deer Cervus elaphus xanthopygus and roe deer Capreolus pygargus bedfordi in relation to human disturbance in the Wandashan Mountains, Northeastern China,” Wildlife Biology, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 92–100, 2008.
[53]
T. E. McIntosh, Movements, survival and habitat use by elk (Cervus elaphus) reintroduced to Northwestern Ontario [M.S. thesis], Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Canada, 2003.
[54]
D. A. Jenkins, J. A. Schaefer, R. Rosatte, T. Bellhouse, J. Hamr, and F. F. Mallory, “Winter resource selection of reintroduced elk and sympatric white-tailed deer at multiple spatial scales,” Journal of Mammalogy, vol. 88, no. 3, pp. 614–624, 2007.
[55]
A. P. Wydeven and R. B. Dahlgren, “Ungulate habitat relationships in Wind Cave National Park,” Journal of Wildlife Management, vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 805–813, 1985.
[56]
J. J. Millsapugh and J. M. Marzluff, Radio Tracking and Animal Populations, Acadmenic Press, San Diego, Calif, USA, 2001.
