Insects and pests constitute a major threat to food supplies all over the world. Some estimates put the loss of food grains because of infestation to about 40% of the world production. Contemporary disinfestation methods are chemical fumigation, ionizing radiation, controlled atmosphere, conventional hot air treatment, and dielectric heating, that is, radio frequency and microwave energy, and so forth. Though chemical fumigation is being used extensively in stored food grains, regulatory issues, insect resistance, and environmental concerns demand technically effective and environmentally sound quarantine methods. Recent studies have indicated that microwave treatment is a potential means of replacing other techniques because of selective heating, pollution free environment, equivalent or better quality retention, energy minimization, and so forth. The current paper reviews the recent advances in Microwave (MW) disinfestation of stored food products and its principle and experimental results from previous studies in order to establish the usefulness of this technology. 1. Importance of Disinfestation Agricultural commodities produced on the fields have to undergo a series of operations such as harvesting, threshing, winnowing, bagging, transportation, storage, and processing before they reach the consumer, and there are appreciable losses in crop output at all these stages. Various estimates have been made to assess the postharvest food grain losses. The losses are caused either by environmental factors such as temperature, moisture, and type of storage structure or by biological agents, namely, insects, rodents, birds, and fungi. The major losses during production, storage and marketing of food grain are being attributed to infestation by insect pests, microbiological contamination, and physiological changes. Insect infestations can occur just prior to harvest or during storage or in-transit in a variety of carriers. The occurrence and numbers of stored grain insect pests are directly related to geographical and climatic conditions [1]. Almost all species have remarkably high rates of multiplication and, within one season, may destroy 10–15% of the grain and contaminate the rest with undesirable odors and flavors. Insect pests also play a pivotal role in transportation of storage fungi [2]. Therefore, preventing economic losses caused by stored-product insects is important from the field to the consumer’s table [3]. The losses during storage are classified as quantity losses and quality losses. Quantity losses occur when the grain is consumed by
References
[1]
S. Lal and B. P. Srivastava, “Insect pests of stored wheat of Madhya Pradesh (India),” Journal of Entomological Research, vol. 9, pp. 141–148, 1985.
[2]
A. K. Sinha and K. K. Sinha, “Insect pests, Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin contamination in stored wheat: a survey at North Bihar (India),” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 223–226, 1990.
[3]
B. Subramanyam and D. W. Hagstrum, Alternatives to Pesticides in STored-Product IPM, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, Mass, USA, 2000.
[4]
R. I. Sánchez-Mari？Ez, M. O. Cortez-Rocha, F. Ortega-Dorame, M. Morales-Valdes, and M. I. Silveira, “End-use quality of flour from Rhyzopertha dominica infested wheat,” Cereal Chemistry, vol. 74, no. 4, pp. 481–483, 1997.
[5]
F. S. Nasab, A. A. Pourmirza, and A. H. Zade, “The effect of microwave radiation with cold storage on the mortality of Indian meal moth (Plodia Interpunctella Hub.) Eggs,” Pakistan Journal of Entomology, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 111–115, 2009.
[6]
J. P. Edwards, J. E. Short, and L. Abraham, “Large-scale evaluation of the insect juvenile hormone analogue fenoxycarb as a long-term protectant of stored wheat,” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 31–39, 1991.
[7]
Y. Rajashekar, N. Bakthavatsalam, and T. Shivanandappa, “Review article on botanicals as grain protectants,” vol. 2012, Article ID 646740, 13 pages, 2012.
[8]
S. Rajendran and V. Sriranjini, “Plant products as fumigants for stored-product insect control,” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 126–135, 2008.
[9]
FDA: Food Drug Administration, Wheat Flour-Adulteration With Insect Fragments and Rodent Hairs (CPG, 7104. 06). Compliance Policy Guides Manual, chapter 5, Foods, color and cosmetics, sub chapter 578-processed grain, 1997.
[10]
FGIS: Federal Grain Inspection Service, Official United States standards for grain subpart m. United States standards for wheat, 1999.
[11]
D. B. Pinniger, M. R. Stubbs, and J. Chambers, “The evaluation of some food attractants for the detection of Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.) and other storage pests,” in Proceedings of the 3rd International Working Conference on Stored Product Entomology, pp. 640–650, Kansas, USA, October 1984.
[12]
R. Vadivambal, D. S. Jayas, and N. D. White, “Disinfestation of life stages of Tribolium castaneum in wheat using microwave energy,” in Proceedings of the CSBE/SCGAB, 2006 Annual Conference Edmonton Alberta, 2006, Paper No. 06-120S.
[13]
E. Mitcham, “Quarantine issues in 2000,” Acta Horticulture, vol. 553, pp. 451–455, 2001.
[14]
J. Gannage, “Pesticides and human health,” 2000, http://www.herbs2000.com/articles/pesticides.htm.
[15]
R. N. Sinha and F. L. Watters, Insect Pests of Flour Mills, Grain Elevators, and Feed Mills and Their Control, Agriculture Canada, Winnipeg, Canada, 1985.
[16]
E. J. Bond, Manual of Fumigation For Insect Control, Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome, Italy, 1984.
[17]
J. G. Leesch, G. F. Knapp, and B. E. Mackey, “Methyl bromide adsorption on activated carbon to control emissions from commodity fumigations,” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 65–74, 2000.
[18]
UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme), Report of the 9th Meeting of the Parties To the Montreal ProTocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, UNEP/OzL.Pro. 9/12, Montreal, Canada, 1997.
[19]
S. Rajendran and N. Muralidharan, “Performance of phosphine in fumigation of bagged paddy rice in indoor and outdoor stores,” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 351–358, 2001.
[20]
C. H. Bell and S. M. Wilson, “Phosphine tolerance and resistance in Trogoderma granarium Everts (Coleoptera: Dermestidae),” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 199–205, 1995.
[21]
B. H. Subramanyam and D. Hagstrum, “Resistance measurement and management,” in Integrated Management of Insects in Stored Products, B. Subramanyam and D. Hagstrum, Eds., pp. 331–398, Marcel Dekker, New York, NY, USA, 1995.
[22]
P. Collins, G. Daglish, H. Pavic, T. Lambkin, R. Kopittke, and B. Bridgeman, “Combating strong resistance to phosphine in stored grain pests in Australia,” in Proceedings of the 2nd Australian Postharvest Technical Conference, E. J. Wright, H. J. Banks, and E. Highley, Eds., pp. 109–112, Adelaide, South Australia, 2000.
[23]
S. J. Langlinais, “Economics of microwave treated rice for controlling weevils,” ASAE Paper 893544, ASABE, St. Joseph, Mich, USA, 1989.
[24]
E. Shadia and S. E. Abd El-Aziz, “Control strategies of stored product pests,” Journal of Entomology, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 101–122, 2011.
[25]
P. G. Fields and W. E. Muir, “Physical control,” in Integrated Management of Insects in Stored Products, Marcel Dekker, New York, NY, USA, 1996.
[26]
J. Banks and J. B. Fields, “Physical methods for insect control in stored-grain ecosystems,” in Stored-Grain Ecosystem, D. S. Jayas, N. D. G. White, and W. E. Muir, Eds., pp. 353–410, Marcel Dekker, New York, NY, USA, 1995.
[27]
M. Hasan and A. R. Khan, “Control of stored-product pests by irradiation,” Integrated Pest Management Reviews, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 15–29, 1998.
[28]
S. Wang and J. Tang, “Radio frequency and microwave alternative treatments for insect control in nuts: A review,” International Agricultural Engineering Journal, vol. 10, no. 3-4, pp. 105–120, 2001.
[29]
G. Saour and H. Makee, “Susceptibility of potato tuber moth (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) to postharvest gamma irradiation,” Journal of Economic Entomology, vol. 97, no. 2, pp. 711–714, 2004.
[30]
N. W. Heather, G. Hallman, and N. Heather, Pest Management and Phytosanitary Trade Barriers, CABi Publishing, Cambridge, Mass, USA, 2008.
[31]
M. Gao, J. Tang, Y. Wang, J. Powers, and S. Wang, “Almond quality as influenced by radio frequency heat treatments for disinfestation,” Postharvest Biology and Technology, vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 225–231, 2010.
[32]
S. O. Nelson, P. G. Hartley, and K. C. Lawrence, “RF and microwave dielectric properties of stored-grain insects and their implications for potential insect control,” Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 685–692, 1998.
[33]
R. Vadivambal, Disinfestation of Stored Grain Insects Using Microwave Energy [Ph.D. thesis], University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada, 2009.
[34]
M. S. Venkatesh and G. S. V. Raghavan, “An overview of microwave processing and dielectric properties of agri-food materials,” Biosystems Engineering, vol. 88, no. 1, pp. 1–18, 2004.
[35]
M. P. Fakude, “Eradication of storage insect pests in maize using microwave energy and the effects of the latter on grain quality,” 2007, http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-01292009-131525/unrestricted/dissertation.pdf.
[36]
P. C. Annis and R. Morton, “The acute mortality effects of carbon dioxide on various life stages of Sitophilus oryzae,” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 115–124, 1997.
[37]
N. Gunasekaran and S. Rajendran, “Toxicity of carbon dioxide to drugstore beetle Stegobium paniceum and cigarette beetle Lasioderma serricorne,” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 283–294, 2005.
[38]
D. E. Evans, “Some biological and physical constraints to the use of heat and cold for disinfesting and preserving stored products,” in Proceedings of the 4th International Working Conference of Stored Product Protection, E. Donahaye and S. Navarro, Eds., pp. 149–164, Tel-Aviv, Israel, 1986.
[39]
J. L. Sharp, J. J. Gaffney, J. I. Moss, and W. P. Gould, “Hot-air treatment device for quarantine research,” Journal of Economics Entomology, vol. 84, pp. 520–527, 1991.
[40]
P. G. Fields, “The control of stored-product insects and mites with extreme temperatures,” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 89–118, 1992.
[41]
V. Y. Yokoyama, G. T. Miller, and R. V. Dowell, “Response of codling Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) to high temperature, a potential quarantine treatment for exported commodities,” Journal of Economics Entomology, vol. 84, pp. 528–531, 1991.
[42]
L. G. Neven, “Combined heat treatments and cold storage effects on mortality of fifth-instar codling moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae),” Journal of Economic Entomology, vol. 87, no. 5, pp. 1262–1265, 1994.
[43]
L. G. Neven and L. M. Rehfield, “Comparison of Pre-Storage Heat Treatments on Fifth-Instar Codling Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) Mortality,” Journal of Economic Entomology, vol. 88, pp. 1371–1375, 1995.
[44]
L. J. Mason and C. A. Strait, “Stored product integrated pest management with extreme temperatures,” in Temperature Sensitivity in Insects and Application in Integrated Pest Management, G. J. Hallman and D. L. Denlinger, Eds., pp. 141–177, Westview Press, Boulder, Colo, USA, 1998.
[45]
A. K. Dowdy, “Heat sterilization as an alternative to methyl bromide fumigation in cereal processing plants,” in Proceedings of 7th International Working Conference for Stored Product Protection, Z. Jin, Q. Liang, Y. Liang, X. Tan, and L. Guan, Eds., pp. 1089–1095, Beijing, China, 1999.
[46]
C. S. Burks, J. A. Johnson, D. E. Maier, and J. W. Heaps, “Temperature.,” in Alternatives to Pesticides in stored Product IPM, B. Subramanyam and D. W. Hagstrum, Eds., pp. 73–104, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, Mass, USA, 2000.
[47]
J. Tang, J. N. Ikediala, S. Wang, J. D. Hansen, and R. P. Cavalieri, “High-temperature-short-time thermal quarantine methods,” Postharvest Biology and Technology, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 129–145, 2000.
[48]
S. Wang, J. N. Ikediala, J. Tang et al., “Radio frequency treatments to control codling moth in in-shell walnuts,” Postharvest Biology and Technology, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 29–38, 2001.
[49]
S. Wang, J. Tang, and R. P. Cavalieri, “Modeling fruit internal heating rates for hot air and hot water treatments,” Postharvest Biology and Technology, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 257–270, 2001.
[50]
S. Lurie, T. Jemric, A. Weksler, R. Akiva, and Y. Gazit, “Heat treatment of 'Oroblanco' citrus fruit to control insect infestation,” Postharvest Biology and Technology, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 321–329, 2004.
[51]
M. Schirra, M. Mulas, A. Fadda, I. Mignani, and S. Lurie, “Chemical and quality traits of “Olinda” and “Campbell” oranges after heat treatment at 44 or 46°C for fruit fly disinfestation,” LWT—Food Science and Technology, vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 519–527, 2005.
[52]
O. Dosland, B. Subramanyam, K. Sheppard, and R. Mahroof, “Temperature modification for insect control,” in Insect Management For Food Storage and Processing, J. Heaps, Ed., pp. 89–103, American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minn, USA, 2005.
[53]
S. J. Beckett, P. G. Fields, and B. Subramanyam, “Disinfestation of stored products and associated structures using heat,” in Heat Treatments For Postharvest Pest Control: Theory and Practice, J. Tang, E. Mitcham, S. Wang, and S. Lurie, Eds., CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2006.
[54]
O. Dosland, B. Subramanyam, K. Sheppard, and R. Mahroof, “Temperature modification for insect control,” in Insect Management For Food Storage and Processing, J. Heaps, Ed., pp. 89–103, American Association for Clinical Chemistry, St. Paul, Minn, USA, 2nd edition, 2006.
[55]
E. J. Mitcham, S. Zhou, and V. Bikoba, “Controlled atmospheres for quarantine control of three pests of table grape,” Journal of Economic Entomology, vol. 90, no. 5, pp. 1360–1370, 1997.
[56]
R. W. Howe, “A summary of estimates of optimal and minimal conditions for population increase of some stored products insects,” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 177–184, 1965.
[57]
J. Hansen, “Heating curve models of quarantine treatments against insect pests,” Journal of Economics Entomology, vol. 85, pp. 1846–1854, 1992.
[58]
S. Lurie, “Postharvest heat treatments,” Postharvest Biology and Technology, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 257–269, 1998.
[59]
S. Wang, X. Yin, J. Tang, and J. D. Hansen, “Thermal resistance of different life stages of codling moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae),” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 40, no. 5, pp. 565–574, 2004.
[60]
G. J. Hallman, J. J. Gaffney, and J. L. Sharp, “Vapor heat treatment for grapefruit infested with Caribbean fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae),” Journal of Economic Entomology, vol. 83, no. 4, pp. 1475–1478, 1990.
[61]
D. Ortega-Zaleta and E. M. Yahia, “Tolerance and quality of mango fruit exposed to controlled atmospheres at high temperatures,” Postharvest Biology and Technology, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 195–201, 2000.
[62]
K. C. Shellie, R. L. Mangan, and S. J. Ingle, “Tolerance of grapefruit and mexican fruit fly larvae to heated controlled atmospheres,” Postharvest Biology and Technology, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 179–186, 1997.
[63]
E. L. Kerbel, G. Mitchell, and G. Mayer, “Effect of postharvest heat treatment for insect control on the quality and market life of avocados,” Horticultural Science, vol. 22, pp. 92–94, 1987.
[64]
K. J. Smith and M. Lay-Yee, “Response of “Royal Gala” apples to hot water treatment for insect control,” Postharvest Biology and Technology, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 111–122, 2000.
[65]
D. M. Obenland, M. L. Arpaia, R. K. Austin, and B. E. MacKey, “High-temperature forced-air treatment alters the quantity of flavor-related, volatile constituents present in navel and valencia oranges,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 47, no. 12, pp. 5184–5188, 1999.
[66]
D. B. Thomas and K. C. Shellie, “Heating rate and induced thermotolerance in Mexican fruit fly (diptera: tephritidae) larvae, a quarantine pest of citrus and mangoes,” Journal of Economic Entomology, vol. 93, no. 4, pp. 1373–1379, 2000.
[67]
S. J. Beckett and R. Morton, “Mortality of Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae) at grain temperatures ranging from 50°C to 60°C obtained at different rates of heating in a spouted bed,” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 313–332, 2003.
[68]
S. Wang and J. Tang, “Heating uniformity and differential heating of insects in almonds in radio frequency systems,” Paper 076019, American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, St. Joseph, Mich, USA, 2007.
[69]
X. Yin, S. Wang, J. Tang, J. D. Hansen, and S. Lurie, “Thermal conditioning of fifth-instar Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) affects HSP70 accumulation and insect mortality,” Physiological Entomology, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 241–247, 2006.
[70]
D. E. Evans, G. R. Thorpe, and T. Dermott, “The disinfestation of wheat in a continuous-flow fluidized bed,” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 125–137, 1983.
[71]
Y. C. Fu, “Fundamentals and industrial applications of microwave and radio frequency in food processing,” in Food Processing: Principles and Applications, J. S. Smith and Y. H. Hui, Eds., Blackwell, Iowa City, IA, Iowa, USA, 2004.
[72]
M. A. Stuchly, “Health effects of exposure to electromagnetic fields,” IEEE Aerospace Applications Conf Proceeding, vol. 1, pp. 351–368, 1995.
[73]
S. O. Nelson and J. A. Payne, “RF dielectric heating for pecan weevil control,” Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, vol. 31, pp. 456–458, 1982.
[74]
D. Andreuccetti, M. Bini, A. Ignesti, A. Gambetta, and R. Olmi, “Microwave destruction of woodworms,” Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 153–160, 1994.
[75]
S. O. Nelson, “Review and assessment of radio-frequency and microwave energy for stored-grain insect control,” Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 1475–1484, 1996.
[76]
S. Wang, J. N. Ikediala, J. Tang, and J. D. Hansen, “Thermal death kinetics and heating rate effects for fifth-instar Cydia pomonella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae),” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 441–453, 2002.
[77]
S. Wang, J. Tang, J. A. Johnson, and J. D. Hansen, “Thermal-death kinetics of fifth-instar Amyelois transitella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae),” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 427–440, 2002.
[78]
S. Wang, J. Tang, J. A. Johnson et al., “Process protocols based on radio frequency energy to control field and storage pests in in-shell walnuts,” Postharvest Biology and Technology, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 265–273, 2002.
[79]
E. J. Mitcham, R. H. Veltman, X. Feng et al., “Application of radio frequency treatments to control insects in in-shell walnuts,” Postharvest Biology and Technology, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 93–100, 2004.
[80]
F. Marra, L. Zhang, and J. G. Lyng, “Radio frequency treatment of foods: review of recent advances,” Journal of Food Engineering, vol. 91, no. 4, pp. 497–508, 2009.
[81]
S. Wang, G. Tiwari, S. Jiao, J. A. Johnson, and J. Tang, “Developing postharvest disinfestations treatments for legumes using radio frequency energy,” Biosystems Engineering, vol. 105, no. 3, pp. 341–349, 2010.
[82]
S. Jiao, J. A. Johnson, J. K. Fellman et al., “Evaluating the storage environment in hypobaric chambers used for disinfesting fresh fruits,” Biosystems Engineering, vol. 111, no. 3, pp. 271–279, 2012.
[83]
S. Wang, M. Monzon, J. A. Johnson, E. J. Mitcham, and J. Tang, “Industrial-scale radio frequency treatments for insect control in walnuts. I: Heating uniformity and energy efficiency,” Postharvest Biology and Technology, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 240–246, 2007.
[84]
S. Wang, M. Monzon, J. A. Johnson, E. J. Mitcham, and J. Tang, “Industrial-scale radio frequency treatments for insect control in walnuts. II: Insect mortality and product quality,” Postharvest Biology and Technology, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 247–253, 2007.
[85]
M. C. Lagunas-Solar, Z. Pan, N. X. Zeng, T. D. Truong, R. Khir, and K. S. P. Amaratunga, “Application of radiofrequency power for non-chemical disinfestation of rough rice with full retention of quality attributes,” Applied Engineering in Agriculture, vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 647–654, 2007.
[86]
S. Wang, J. Tang, R. P. Cavalieri, and D. C. Davis, “Differential heating of insects in dried nuts and fruits associated with radio frequency and microwave treatments,” Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, vol. 46, no. 4, pp. 1175–1182, 2003.
[87]
S. Wang, J. Tang, J. A. Johnson et al., “Dielectric properties of fruits and insect pests as related to radio frequency and microwave treatments,” Biosystems Engineering, vol. 85, no. 2, pp. 201–212, 2003.
[88]
S. L. Halverson, R. Plarre, T. S. Bigelow, and K. Lieber, “Recent advance in the use of EHF energy for the control of insect in stored products,” in Proceedings of the ASAE Annual International Meeting, Orlando, Fla, USA, 1998, Paper No. 986052.
[89]
J. N. Ikediala, J. Tang, L. G. Neven, and S. R. Drake, “Quarantine treatment of cherries using 915 MHz microwaves: temperature mapping, codling moth mortality and fruit quality,” Postharvest Biology and Technology, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 127–1, 1999.
[90]
O. A. Karabulut and N. Baykal, “Evaluation of the use of microwave power for the control of postharvest diseases of peaches,” Postharvest Biology and Technology, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 237–240, 2002.
[91]
F. L. Watters, “Microwave radiation for control of Tribolium confusum in wheat and flour,” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 19–25, 1976.
[92]
M. A. K. Hamid, C. S. Kashyap, and R. V. Cauwenberghe, “Control of grain insects by microwave power,” Journal of Microwave Power, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 126–135, 1968.
[93]
S. L. Halverson, T. W. Phillips, T. S. Bigelow, G. N. Mbata, and M. E. Payton, “The control of various species of stored-product insects with EHF energy,” in Proceeding of the Annual International Research Conference on Methyl Bromide Alternatives and Emissions Reductions, pp. 54-1–54-4, 1999.
[94]
R. V. Decareau, Microwaves in the Food Processing Industry, Academic Press, Natick, Mass, USA, 1985.
[95]
P. P. Sutar and S. Prasad, “Microwave drying technology-recent developments and R&D needs in India,” in proceedings of the 42nd ISAE Annual Convention, pp. 1–3, Kolkata, India, February 2008.
[96]
H. Linn and M. Moller, “Microwave heating,” in Proceedings of the Thermprocess Symposium, pp. 16–21, Dusseldorf, Germany, June 2003.
[97]
S. O. Nelson and S. Trabelsi, “Factors influencing the dielectric properties of agricultural and food products,” Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy, vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 93–107, 2012.
[98]
E. W. Tilton and H. H. Vardell, “Combination of microwaves and partial vacuum for control of four stored-product insects in stored grain,” Georgia Entomological Society, vol. 17, pp. 96–106, 1982.
[99]
E. W. Tilton and J. H. Brower, “Ionizing radiation for insect control in grain and grain products,” Cereal Foods World, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 330–335, 1987.
[100]
N. Shayesteh and N. N. Barthakur, “Mortality and behaviour of two stored-product insect species during microwave irradiation,” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 239–246, 1996.
[101]
S. S. Bedi and M. Singh, “Microwaves for control of stored grain insects,” National Academy of Science Letter, vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 195–197, 1992.
[102]
D. Sanchez-Hernandez, J. V. Balbastre, and J. M. Osca, “Microwave energy as a viable alternative to methyl bromide and other pesticides for rice disinfection of industrial processes,” in Proceedings of International Conference on Alternatives to Methyl Bromide, pp. 159–162, Sevilla, Spain, March 2002.
[103]
W. R. Halverson, T. S. Bigelow, and S. L. Halverson, “Design of High-Power Microwave Applicator for the Control of Insects in Stored Products,” in Proceedings of the Annual International Meeting, pp. 27–30, American Society for Agricultural Engineers, Las Vegas, Nev., USA, July 2003, Paper No. 036156.
[104]
R. Vadivambal, D. S. Jayas, and N. D. G. White, “Wheat disinfestation using microwave energy,” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 508–514, 2007.
[105]
R. Vadivambal, O. F. Deji, D. S. Jayas, and N. D. G. White, “Disinfestation of stored corn using microwave energy,” Agriculture and Biology Journal of North America, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 18–26, 2010.
[106]
R. Singh, K. K. Singh, and N. Kotwaliwale, “Study on disinfestation of pulses using microwave technique,” Journal of Food Science and Technology, vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 505–509, 2012.
[107]
R. Pande, H. N. Mishra, and M. N. Singh, “Microwave drying for safe storage and improved nutritional quality of green gram seed (Vigna radiata),” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 60, pp. 3809–3816, 2012.
[108]
S. L. Halverson, W. E. Burkholder, T. S. Bigelow, E. V. Norsheim, and M. E. Misenheimer, “High-power microwave radiation as an alternative insect control method for stored products,” Journal of Economic Entomology, vol. 89, no. 6, pp. 1638–1648, 1996.
[109]
H. H. Webber, R. P. Wangner, and A. G. Pearson, “High frequency electric fields as lethal agents for insects,” Journal of Economics Entomology, vol. 39, pp. 481–498, 1946.
[110]
S. O. Nelson, “Dielectric properties of agricultural products: measurements and applications,” IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation, vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 845–869, 1991.
[111]
S. O. Nelson, “Radio-frequency and microwave dielectric properties of insects,” Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 47–56, 2001.
[112]
S. O. Nelson and W. K. Whitney, “Radiofrequency electric fields for stored grain insect control,” Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 133–137, 1960.
[113]
S. O. Nelson, L. E. Stetson, and J. J. Rhine, “Factors Influencing Effectiveness of Radiofrequency Electric Fields for Stored-Grain Insect Control,” Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, vol. 9, pp. 809–815, 1966.
[114]
S. O. Nelson, “Electromagnetic Energy,” in Pest Control, Biological, Physical and Selected Chemical Methods, W. W. Kilgore and R. L. Doutt, Eds., pp. 89–145, Academic Press, New York, NY, USA, 1967.
[115]
B. Alfaifi, J. Tang, B. Rasco, S. Sablani, and Y. Jiao, “Radio frequency disinfestation treatments for dried fruit: dielectric properties,” LWT—Food Science and Technology, vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 746–754, 2013.
[116]
J. N. Ikediala, J. Tang, and T. Wig, “A heating block system for studying thermal death kinetics of insect pests,” Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 351–358, 2000.
[117]
V. M. Rashkovan, N. A. Khizhnyak, A. V. Basteev, L. A. Bazyma, L. Ni？o de Rivera, and I. A. Ponomaryova, “Interaction of electromagnetic waves with granular agricultural product and insects,” Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy, vol. 38, no. 4, pp. 1–12, 2003.
[118]
J. Tang, “Dielectric Properties of foods,” in Microwave Processing of Foods, H. Schubert and M. Regier, Eds., CRC Press, Cambridge UK, 2005.
[119]
A. C. Metaxas and R. J. Meredith, Industrial Microwave Heating, Peter Peregrinus, 1983.
[120]
G. J. Hallman and J. L. Sharp, “Radio Frequency Heat Treatments,” in Quarantine Treatments For Pests of Food Plants, J. L. Sharp and G. J. Hallman, Eds., pp. 165–170, Westview Press, San Francisco, Calif, USA, 1994.
[121]
L. E. Campana, M. E. Sempe, and R. R. Filgueira, “Physical, chemical and baking properties of wheat dried with microwave energy,” Cereal Chemistry, vol. 70, no. 6, pp. 760–762, 1993.
[122]
M. V. Bhaskara Reddy, G. S. V. Raghavan, A. C. Kushalappa, and T. C. Paulitz, “Effect of microwave treatment on quality of wheat seeds infected with Fusarium graminearum,” Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research, vol. 71, no. 2, pp. 113–117, 1998.
[123]
J. Kaasova, B. Hubackova, P. Kadlec, J. Prihoda, and Z. O. Bubnik, “Chemical and biochemical changes during microwave treatment of wheat,” Czech Journal of Food Science, vol. 20, pp. 74–78, 2002.
[124]
M. A. K. Hamid and R. J. Boulanger, “A new method for the control of moisture and insect infestations of grain by microwave power,” Journal of Microwave Power, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 11–18, 1969.
[125]
D. P. Locatelli and S. Traversa, “Microwaves in the Control of Rice Infestants,” Italian Journal of Food Science, vol. 1, no. 2, p. 62, 1989.
[126]
J. L. Sharp and R. G. McGuire, “Control of Caribbean fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) in navel orange by forced hot air,” Journal of Economic Entomology, vol. 89, no. 5, pp. 1181–1185, 1996.
[127]
K. C. Shellie and R. L. Mangan, “Disinfestation: effect of non-chemical treatments on market quality of fruit,” in Postharvest Handling of Tropical Fruits, B. R. Champ, Ed., ACIAR Proceedings, pp. 304–310, 1994.
[128]
J. A. Johnson, K. A. Valero, S. Wang, and J. Tang, “Thermal death kinetics of red flour beetle (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae),” Journal of Economic Entomology, vol. 97, no. 6, pp. 1868–1873, 2004.
[129]
K. C. Shellie and R. L. Mangan, “Tolerance of red fleshed grapefruit to a constant or stepped temperature, forced-air quarantine heat treatment,” Postharvest Biology and Technology, vol. 7, no. 1-2, pp. 151–159, 1996.
[130]
D. R. Wilkin and G. Nelson, Control of Insects in Confectionery Walnuts Using Microwaves, vol. 87, British Crop Protection Council Monograph, Berks, UK, 1987.
[131]
A. Zouba, O. Khoualdia, A. Antoneo Diaferia, V. Valereo Rosito, H. Bouabidi, and B. Chermiti, “Microwave Treatment for Postharvest Control of the Date Moth Ectomyelois ceratoniae,” Tunisian Journal of Plant Protection, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 173–183, 2012.
[132]
S. Ryynanen, H. Tuorila, and L. Hyvonen, “Perceived temperature effects on microwave-heated meals and meal components,” Food Service Technology, vol. 1, pp. 141–148, 2001.
[133]
D. S. Lee, D. Shin, and K. L. Yam, “Improvement of temperature uniformity in microwave-reheated rice by optimizing heat/cold cycle,” Food Service Technology, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 87–93, 2002.
[134]
N. Sakai, C. Wang, S. Toba, and M. Watanabe, “An analysis of temperature distributions in microwave heating of foods with non-uniform dielectric properties,” Journal of Chemical Engineering of Japan, vol. 37, no. 7, pp. 858–862, 2004.
[135]
A. Manickavasagan, D. S. Jayas, and N. D. G. White, “Non-uniformity of surface temperatures of grain after microwave treatment in an industrial microwave dryer,” Drying Technology, vol. 24, no. 12, pp. 1559–1567, 2006.
[136]
S. Gunasekaran and H. W. Yang, “Effect of experimental parameters on temperature distribution during continuous and pulsed microwave heating,” Journal of Food Engineering, vol. 78, no. 4, pp. 1452–1456, 2007.
[137]
S. S. R. Geedipalli, V. Rakesh, and A. K. Datta, “Modeling the heating uniformity contributed by a rotating turntable in microwave ovens,” Journal of Food Engineering, vol. 82, no. 3, pp. 359–368, 2007.
[138]
A. Manickavasagan, D. S. Jayas, and N. D. G. White, “Germination of wheat grains from uneven microwave heating in an industrial microwave dryer,” Canadian Biosystems Engineering, vol. 49, pp. 323–327, 2007.
[139]
J. M. Hill and M. J. Jennings, “Formulation of model equations for heating by microwave radiation,” Applied Mathematical Modelling, vol. 11, pp. 369–319, 1993.
[140]
Z. Songping, Z. Yinglong, and T. R. Marchant, “A DRBEM model for microwave heating problems,” Applied Mathematical Modelling, vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 287–297, 1995.
[141]
A. Ayvaz and S. Karab？rklü, “Effect of cold storage and different diets on Ephestia kuehniella Zeller,” Journal of Pest Science, vol. 81, no. 1, pp. 57–62, 2008.
[142]
S. Gasemzadeh, A. Pourmirza, M. Safaralizadeh, and M. Maroufpoor, “Effect of microwave radiation and cold storage on Tribolium castaneum Herbst (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) and Sitophilus oryzae L. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae),” Journal of Plant Protection Research, vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 140–145, 2010.
[143]
O. Valizadegan, A. A. Pourmirza, and M. H. Safaralizadeh, “The impact of microwaves irradiation and temperature manipulation for control of stored-products insects,” African Journal of Biotechnology, vol. 10, no. 61, pp. 13256–13262, 2011.
[144]
S. M. El-Naggar and A. A. Mikhaiel, “Disinfestation of stored wheat grain and flour using gamma rays and microwave heating,” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 191–196, 2011.
[145]
M. Amjad and M. Akbar Anjum, “Effect of gamma radiation on onion seed viability, germination potential, seedling growth and morphology,” Pakistan Journal of Agriculture, vol. 39, pp. 202–206, 2002.
[146]
N. C. Doty and C. W. Baker, “Microwave conditioning of hard red spring wheat. I. Effects of wide power range on flour and bread quality,” Cereal Chemistry, vol. 54, pp. 717–727, 1977.
[147]
S. G. Walde, K. Balaswamy, V. Velu, and D. G. Rao, “Microwave drying and grinding characteristics of wheat (Triticum aestivum),” Journal of Food Engineering, vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 271–276, 2002.
[148]
V. Velu, A. Nagender, P. G. Prabhakara Rao, and D. G. Rao, “Dry milling characteristics of microwave dried maize grains (Zea mays L.),” Journal of Food Engineering, vol. 74, no. 1, pp. 30–36, 2006.
[149]
R. Vadivambal, D. S. Jayas, and N. D. G. White, “Mortality of stored-grain insects exposed to microwave energy,” Transactions of the ASABE, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 641–647, 2008.
[150]
S. O. Nelson and L. E. Stetson, “Possibilities for vontrolling insects with microwaves and lower frequency RF energy,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. 22, no. 12, pp. 1303–1305, 1974.
