全部 标题 作者
关键词 摘要

OALib Journal期刊
ISSN: 2333-9721
费用:99美元

查看量下载量

相关文章

更多...

Cardiovascular Disease in Latin American Patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: A Cross-Sectional Study and a Systematic Review

DOI: 10.1155/2013/794383

Full-Text   Cite this paper   Add to My Lib

Abstract:

Objective. This study was performed to determine the prevalence of and associated risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD) in Latin American (LA) patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Methods. First, a cross-sectional analytical study was conducted in 310 Colombian patients with SLE in whom CVD was assessed. Associated factors were examined by multivariate regression analyses. Second, a systematic review of the literature on CVD in SLE in LA was performed. Results. There were 133 (36.5%) Colombian SLE patients with CVD. Dyslipidemia, smoking, coffee consumption, and pleural effusion were positively associated with CVD. An independent effect of coffee consumption and cigarette on CVD was found regardless of gender and duration of disease. In the systematic review, 60 articles fulfilling the eligibility criteria were included. A wide range of CVD prevalence was found (4%–79.5%). Several studies reported ancestry, genetic factors, and polyautoimmunity as novel risk factors for such a condition. Conclusions. A high rate of CVD is observed in LA patients with SLE. Awareness of the observed risk factors should encourage preventive population strategies for CVD in patients with SLE aimed at facilitating the suppression of cigarette smoking and coffee consumption as well as at the tight control of dyslipidemia and other modifiable risk factors. 1. Introduction Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex systemic autoimmune disease (AD), characterized by the production of numerous pathogenic autoantibodies [1]. Diverse heritable, hormonal, and environmental factors and immune-system aberrations contribute to the clinical expression of the disease [2]. The heterogeneous nature of SLE explains the broad spectrum of clinical manifestations (i.e., subphenotypes). SLE affects predominantly women (female-to-male ratio 9?:?1) of child-bearing age [3]. The annual incidence and prevalence range from 1.4 to 11 cases per 100,000 population, and from 7.4 to 159.4 cases per 100,000 population, respectively [4] depending on a variety of factors, including age, gender, and ancestry. African, Hispanic, and Asian ancestry significantly influence both the risk of developing the disorder and outcome [4]. A bimodal mortality was described by Urowitz et al. [5] characterized by an early peak in the first 3 years after diagnosis due to active disease, infections and glomerulonephritis, and a second peak, 4–20 years after SLE diagnosis, in which cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the main feature and cause of death. Although overall mortality for patients with SLE

References

[1]  Z. Liu and A. Davidson, “Taming lupus—a new understanding of pathogenesis is leading to clinical advances,” Nature Medicine, vol. 18, pp. 871–882, 2012.
[2]  G. C. Tsokos, “Mechanisms of disease: systemic lupus erythematosus,” The New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 365, no. 22, pp. 2110–2121, 2011.
[3]  S. G. Guerra, T. J. Vyse, and D. S. C. Graham, “The genetics of lupus: a functional perspective,” Arthritis Research and Therapy, vol. 14, article 211, 2012.
[4]  D. P. D'Cruz, M. A. Khamashta, and G. R. Hughes, “Systemic lupus erythematosus,” The Lancet, vol. 369, no. 9561, pp. 587–596, 2007.
[5]  M. B. Urowitz, A. A. M. Bookman, B. E. Koehler, D. A. Gordon, H. A. Smythe, and M. A. Ogryzlo, “The bimodal mortality pattern of systemic lupus erythematosus,” The American Journal of Medicine, vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 221–225, 1976.
[6]  L. Bj?rn?dal, L. Yin, F. Granath, L. Klareskog, and A. Ekbom, “Cardiovascular disease a hazard despite improved prognosis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: results from a Swedish population based study 1964–95,” Journal of Rheumatology, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 713–719, 2004.
[7]  A. Bitton and T. Gaziano, “The Framingham heart study's impact on global risk assessment,” Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 68–78, 2010.
[8]  S. R. Schoenfeld, S. Kasturi, and K. H. Costenbader, “The epidemiology of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease among patients with SLE: a systematic review,” Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 77–95, 2013.
[9]  J. M. Esdaile, M. Abrahamowicz, T. Grodzicky et al., “Traditional Framingham risk factors fail to fully account for accelerated atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus,” Arthritis and Rheumatism, vol. 44, no. 10, pp. 2331–2337, 2001.
[10]  E. González Burchard, L. N. Borrell, S. Choudhry et al., “Latino populations: a unique opportunity for the study of race, genetics, and social environment in epidemiological research,” The American Journal of Public Health, vol. 95, no. 12, pp. 2161–2168, 2005.
[11]  A. L. Price, N. Patterson, F. Yu et al., “A genomewide admixture map for latino populations,” The American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 80, no. 6, pp. 1024–1036, 2007.
[12]  E. Lora, “Health perceptions in Latin America,” Health Policy and Planning, vol. 27, pp. 555–569, 2012.
[13]  S. M. Barreto, J. J. Miranda, J. P. Figueroa et al., “Epidemiology in Latin America and the Caribbean: current situation and challenges,” International Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 557–571, 2012.
[14]  B. A. Pons-Estel, L. J. Catoggio, M. H. Cardiel et al., “The GLADEL multinational Latin American prospective inception cohort of 1,214 patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: ethnic and disease heterogeneity among ‘hispanics’,” Medicine, vol. 83, no. 1, pp. 1–17, 2004.
[15]  S. Chaiamnuay, A. M. Bertoli, M. Fernández et al., “The impact of increased body mass index on systemic lupus erythematosus: data from LUMINA, a multiethnic cohort (LUMINA XLVI) [corrected],” Journal of Clinical Rheumatology, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 128–133, 2007.
[16]  G. J. Pons-Estel, L. A. González, J. Zhang et al., “Predictors of cardiovascular damage in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: data from LUMINA (LXVIII), a multiethnic US cohort,” Rheumatology, vol. 48, no. 7, pp. 817–822, 2009.
[17]  S. M. A. Toloza, A. G. Uribe, G. McGwin Jr. et al., “Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic US cohort (LUMINA): XXIII. Baseline predictors of vascular events,” Arthritis and Rheumatism, vol. 50, no. 12, pp. 3947–3957, 2004.
[18]  K. T. Ho, C. W. Ahn, G. S. Alarcón et al., “Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic cohort (LUMINA): XXVIII. Factors predictive of thrombotic events,” Rheumatology, vol. 44, no. 10, pp. 1303–1307, 2005.
[19]  P. I. Burgos, G. McGwin Jr., J. D. Reveille, L. M. Vilá, and G. S. Alarcón, “Factors predictive of thrombotic events in LUMINA, a multi-ethnic cohort of SLE patients (LXXII),” Rheumatology, vol. 49, no. 9, Article ID keq140, pp. 1720–1725, 2010.
[20]  E. L. Smith and R. H. Shmerling, “The American college of rheumatology criteria for the classification of systemic lupus erythematosus: strengths, weaknesses, and opportunities for improvement,” Lupus, vol. 8, no. 8, pp. 586–595, 1999.
[21]  M. C. Hochberg, “Updating the American college of rheumatology revised criteria for the classification of systemic lupus erythematosus,” Arthritis and Rheumatism, vol. 40, no. 9, p. 1725, 1997.
[22]  Colombia, Law no. 30, Public Service in Higher Education, 1992.
[23]  Colombia, Law no. 115, General on education, 1994.
[24]  C. Barragán-Martínez, C. A. Speck-Hernández, G. Montoya-Ortiz, R. D. Mantilla, J. M. Anaya, and A. Rojas-Villarraga, “Organic solvents as risk factor for autoimmune diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis,” PLoS ONE, vol. 7, no. 12, Article ID e51506, 2012.
[25]  Y. Shoenfeld and R. Cervera, Diagnostic Criteria in Autoimmune Diseases, 2008.
[26]  A. Rojas-Villarraga, J. Amaya-Amaya, A. Rodriguez-Rodriguez, R. D. Mantilla, and J. M. Anaya, “Introducing polyautoimmunity: secondary autoimmune diseases no longer exist,” Autoimmune Diseases, vol. 2012, Article ID 254319, 9 pages, 2012.
[27]  J. M. Anaya, R. Corena, J. Castiblanco, A. Rojas-Villarraga, and Y. Shoenfeld, “The kaleidoscope of autoimmunity: multiple autoimmune syndromes and familial autoimmunity,” Expert Review of Clinical Immunology, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 623–635, 2007.
[28]  J. M. Anaya, “The autoimmune tautology,” Arthritis Research and Therapy, vol. 12, no. 6, article 147, 2010.
[29]  J. Cárdenas-Roldán, A. Rojas-Villarraga, and J. M. Anaya, “How do autoimmune diseases cluster in families? A systematic review and meta-analysis,” BMC Medicine, vol. 11, article 73, 2013.
[30]  D. W. Jones and J. E. Hall, “Seventh report of the joint national committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure and evidence from new hypertension trials,” Hypertension, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 1–3, 2004.
[31]  N. J. Stone, S. Bilek, and S. Rosenbaum, “Recent national cholesterol education program adult treatment panel III update: adjustments and options,” The American Journal of Cardiology, vol. 96, no. 4, pp. 53E–59E, 2005.
[32]  P. W. F. Wilson, R. B. D'Agostino, D. Levy, A. M. Belanger, H. Silbershatz, and W. B. Kannel, “Prediction of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories,” Circulation, vol. 97, no. 18, pp. 1837–1847, 1998.
[33]  S. M. Grundy, R. Pasternak, P. Greenland, S. Smith Jr., and V. Fuster, “Assessment of cardiovascular risk by use of multiple-risk-factor assessment equations: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American heart association and the American college of cardiology,” Circulation, vol. 100, no. 13, pp. 1481–1492, 1999.
[34]  Asia Pacific Cohort Studies Collaboration, “The impact of cardiovascular risk factors on the age-related excess risk of coronary heart disease,” International Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 1025–1033, 2006.
[35]  American Diabetes Association, “Standards of medical care in diabetes—2012,” Diabetes Care, vol. 35, supplement 1, pp. S11–S63, 2012.
[36]  Z. Reiner, A. L. Catapano, G. de Backer et al., “ESC/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias: the task force for the management of dyslipidaemias of the European society of cardiology (ESC) and the European atherosclerosis society (EAS),” European Heart Journal, vol. 32, no. 14, pp. 1769–1818, 2011.
[37]  British Cardiac Society, British Hyperlipidaemia Association, British Hypertension Society, and British Diabetic Association, “Joint British recommendations on prevention of coronary heart disease in clinical practice: summary,” The British Medical Journal, vol. 320, no. 7236, pp. 705–708, 2000.
[38]  A. Liberati, D. G. Altman, J. Tetzlaff, et al., “The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration,” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, vol. 62, pp. e1–34, 2009.
[39]  F. J. Mateen, J. Oh, A. I. Tergas, N. H. Bhayani, and B. B. Kamdar, “Titles versus titles and abstracts for initial screening of articles for systematic reviews,” Clinical Epidemiology, vol. 6, pp. 89–95, 2013.
[40]  OCEBM Levels of Evidence Working Group, The Oxford 2011 Levels of Evidence, Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine, 2011.
[41]  L. Onetti, S. Villafa?e, E. Menso et al., “Hyperhomocystinemia as a thrombotic risk factor in patients suffering from systemic lupus erithematosus and antiphospholipid syndrome,” Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, vol. 62, no. 3, pp. 19–23, 2005.
[42]  F. V. Signorelli, G. F. Salles, and J. A. Papi, “Antiphospholipid syndrome as predictor of mortality in Brazilian patients with systemic lupus erythematosus,” Lupus, vol. 20, article 419, 2011.
[43]  J. Cabiedes, A. R. Cabral, and D. Alarcon-Segovia, “Clinical manifestations of the antiphospholipid syndrome in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus associate move strongly with anti-β2-glycoprotein-I than with antiphospholipid antibodies,” Journal of Rheumatology, vol. 22, no. 10, pp. 1899–1906, 1995.
[44]  C. J. Bastos, A. C. Queiroz, and R. Martinelli, “Cardiac involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus: anatomo-pathological study,” Revista da Associa??o Médica Brasileira, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 161–164, 1993.
[45]  W. H. Chahade, E. I. Sato, J. E. Moura Jr., L. T. L. Costallat, and L. E. C. Andrade, “Occasional series: lupus around the world. Systemic lupus erythematosus in Sao Paulo, Brazil: a clinical and laboratory overview,” Lupus, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 100–103, 1995.
[46]  L. J. Alves, L. Hydalgo, L. F. Rolim et al., “Clinical and laboratorial diagnosis of heart disease in systemic lupus erythematosus,” Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia, vol. 68, no. 2, pp. 79–83, 1997.
[47]  E. F. Borba and E. Bonfá, “Dyslipoproteinemias in systemic lupus erythematosus: influence of disease, activity, and anticardiolipin antibodies,” Lupus, vol. 6, no. 6, pp. 533–539, 1997.
[48]  L. T. L. Costallat, C. P. L. C. Lia, N. L. Neto, R. M. Yamada, and A. M. Samara, “Causes of death in systemic lupus erythematosus,” Revista Brasileira de Reumatologia, vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 205–209, 1997.
[49]  M. C. B. T. Rocha, S. S. Teixeira, C. Bueno, M. B. G. Vendramini, R. P. Martinelli, and M. B. Santiago, “Demographic, clinical, and laboratory profile of 100 patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in the State of Bahia,” Revista Brasileira de Reumatologia, vol. 40, no. 5, pp. 221–230, 2000.
[50]  A. C. Travassos, M. C. Rocha, S. Souza, C. Brandao, J. F. Silva, and M. Santiago, “Freqtiencia dos anticorpos antifosfolfpides (aFL) em portadores de lupus eritematoso sistemico (LES) no Estado da Bahia,” Revista Brasileira de Reumatologia, vol. 40, pp. 183–188, 2000.
[51]  C. A. Falc?o, I. C. Alves, W. H. Chahade, A. L. B. P. Duarte, and N. Lucena-Silva, “Echocardiographic abnormalities and antiphospholipid antibodies in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus,” Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia, vol. 79, no. 3, pp. 285–291, 2002.
[52]  E. M. C. Sella, E. I. Sato, and A. Barbieri, “Coronary artery angiography in systemic lupus erythematosus patients with abnormal myocardial perfusion scintigraphy,” Arthritis and Rheumatism, vol. 48, no. 11, pp. 3168–3175, 2003.
[53]  E. M. C. Sella, E. I. Sato, W. A. Leite, J. A. O. Filho, and A. Barbieri, “Myocardial perfusion scintigraphy and coronary disease risk factors in systemic lupus erythematosus,” Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, vol. 62, no. 11, pp. 1066–1070, 2003.
[54]  M. Soares, L. Reis, J. A. S. Papi, and C. R. L. Cardoso, “Rate, pattern and factors related to damage in Brazilian systemic lupus erythematosus patients,” Lupus, vol. 12, no. 10, pp. 788–794, 2003.
[55]  C. R. L. Cardoso, M. A. O. Sales, J. A. S. Papi, and G. F. Salles, “QT-interval parameters are increased in systemic lupus erythematosus patients,” Lupus, vol. 14, no. 10, pp. 846–852, 2005.
[56]  M. C. B.T. da Rocha, M. J. P. Vilar, E. A. M. Freire, and M. B. Santiago, “Arterial occlusion in systemic lupus erythematosus: a good prognostic sign?” Clinical Rheumatology, vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 602–605, 2005.
[57]  M. M. Shinzato, C. Bueno, V. S. T. Viana, E. F. Borba, C. R. Gon?alves, and E. Bonfá, “Complement-fixing activity of anticardiolipin antibodies in patients with and without thrombosis,” Lupus, vol. 14, no. 12, pp. 953–958, 2005.
[58]  A. W. S. de Souza, F. S. Hatta, F. Miranda Jr., and E. I. Sato, “Atherosclerotic plaque in carotid arteries in systemic lupus erythematosus: frequency and associated risk factors,” Sao Paulo Medical Journal, vol. 123, no. 3, pp. 137–142, 2005.
[59]  B. F. A. Freire, R. C. da Silva, A. T. Fabro, and D. C. dos Santos, “Is systemic lupus erithematosus a new risk factor for atherosclerosis?” Arquivos brasileiros de cardiologia, vol. 87, no. 3, pp. 300–306, 2006.
[60]  R. W. Telles, C. C. D. Lanna, G. A. Ferreira, M. A. P. de Carvalho, and A. Ribeiro, “Freqüência de doen?a cardiovascular aterosclerótica e de seus fatores de risco em pacientes com lúpus eritematoso sistêmico,” Revista Brasileira de Reumatologia, vol. 47, pp. 165–173, 2007.
[61]  C. R. L. Cardoso, F. V. Signorelli, J. A. S. Papi, and G. F. Salles, “Initial and accrued damage as predictors of mortality in Brazilian patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a cohort study,” Lupus, vol. 17, no. 11, pp. 1042–1048, 2008.
[62]  C. R. L. Cardoso, F. V. Signorelli, J. A. Papi, and G. F. Salles, “Prevalence and factors associated with dyslipoproteinemias in Brazilian systemic lupus erythematosus patients,” Rheumatology International, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 323–327, 2008.
[63]  R. W. Telles, C. C. D. Lanna, G. A. Ferreira, A. J. Souza, T. P. Navarro, and A. L. Ribeiro, “Carotid atherosclerotic alterations in systemic lupus erythematosus patients treated at a Brazilian university setting,” Lupus, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 105–113, 2008.
[64]  R. A. M. Cadaval, J. E. Martinez, M. A. Mazzolin, R. G. T. Barros, and F. A. de Almeida, “Avalia??o do risco coronariano em mulheres com lúpus eritematoso sistêmico,” Revista Brasileira de Reumatologia, vol. 49, no. 6, 2009.
[65]  F. D. M. M. dos Santos, M. C. Borges, M. I. T. D. Correia, R. W. Telles, and C. C. D. Lanna, “Assessment of nutritional status and physical activity in systemic lupus erythematosus patients,” Revista Brasileira de Reumatologia, vol. 50, no. 6, pp. 631–645, 2010.
[66]  G. G. Ribeiro, E. Bonfá, R. S. Neto et al., “Premature coronary artery calcification is associated with disease duration and bone mineral density in young female systemic lupus erythematosus patients,” Lupus, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 27–33, 2010.
[67]  S. K. Shinjo, E. Bonfá, D. Wojdyla et al., “Antimalarial treatment may have a time-dependent effect on lupus survival: data from a multinational Latin American inception cohort,” Arthritis and Rheumatism, vol. 62, no. 3, pp. 855–862, 2010.
[68]  R. W. Telles, C. C. D. Lanna, G. A. Ferreira, and A. L. Ribeiro, “Metabolic syndrome in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: association with traditional risk factors for coronary heart disease and lupus characteristics,” Lupus, vol. 19, no. 7, pp. 803–809, 2010.
[69]  M. A. B. Lozovoy, A. N. C. Sim?o, M. S. N. Hohmann et al., “Inflammatory biomarkers and oxidative stress measurements in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus with or without metabolic syndrome,” Lupus, vol. 20, no. 13, pp. 1356–1364, 2011.
[70]  D. C. C. Souza, A. H. Santo, and E. I. Sato, “Mortality profile related to systemic lupus erythematosus: a multiple cause-of-death analysis,” Journal of Rheumatology, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 496–503, 2012.
[71]  F. de Miranda Moura dos Santos, M. C. Borges, R. W. Telles, M. I. T. D. Correia, and C. C. D. Lanna, “Excess weight and associated risk factors in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus,” Rheumatology International, vol. 33, pp. 681–688, 2013.
[72]  J. Gobaira Maluf, A. Zghaib Abad, and P. A. R. López, “The heart in systemic lupus erythematosus. Study in 32 non-selected patients (author's transl),” Archivos del Instituto de Cardiologia de Mexico, vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 223–228, 1982.
[73]  E. Badui, D. Garcia-Rubi, E. Robles et al., “Cardiovascular manifestations in systemic lupus erythematosus. Prospective study of 100 patients,” Angiology, vol. 36, no. 7, pp. 431–441, 1985.
[74]  G. J. Ruiz-Arguelles, A. Ruiz-Arguelles, D. Alarcon-Segovia et al., “Natural anticoagulants in systemic lupus erythematosus. Deficiency of protein S bound to C4bp associates with recent history of venous thromboses, antiphospholipid antibodies, and the antiphospholipid syndrome,” Journal of Rheumatology, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 552–558, 1991.
[75]  M. Salazar-Paramo, I. G. de la Torre, M. J. Fritzler, S. Loyau, and E. Anglés-Cano, “Antibodies to fibrin-bound tissue-type plasminogen activator in systemic lupus erythematosus are associated with Raynaud's phenomenon and thrombosis,” Lupus, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 275–278, 1996.
[76]  A. Zonana-Nacach, A. Camargo-Coronel, P. Yá?ez et al., “Measurement of damage in 210 Mexican patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: relationship with disease duration,” Lupus, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 119–123, 1998.
[77]  L. Gómez-Pacheco, A. R. Villa, C. Drenkard, J. Cabiedes, A. R. Cabral, and D. Alarcón-Segovia, “Serum anti-β2-glycoprotein-I and anticardiolipin antibodies during thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus patients,” The American Journal of Medicine, vol. 106, no. 4, pp. 417–423, 1999.
[78]  F. Salcido-Ochoa, J. Cabiedes, D. Alarcón-Segovia, and A. R. Cabral, “Antiprothrombin antibodies in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus or with primary antiphospholipid syndrome,” Journal of Clinical Rheumatology, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 251–255, 2002.
[79]  J. G. Juárez-Rojas, A. X. Medina-Urrutia, R. Posadas-Sánchez et al., “High-density lipoproteins are abnormal in young women with uncomplicated systemic lupus erythematosus,” Lupus, vol. 17, no. 11, pp. 981–987, 2008.
[80]  J. Romero-Díaz, I. García-Sosa, and J. Sánchez-Guerrero, “Thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus and other autoimmune diseases of recent onset,” Journal of Rheumatology, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 68–75, 2009.
[81]  A. Zonana-Nacach, E. Santana-Sahagún, F. J. Jiménez-Balderas, and A. Camargo-Coronel, “Prevalence and factors associated with metabolic syndrome in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus,” Journal of Clinical Rheumatology, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 74–77, 2008.
[82]  A. G. Uribe, J. Romero-Díaz, M. Apte et al., “Impact of immigration on the clinical expression of systemic lupus erythematosus: a comparative study of Hispanic patients residing in the USA and Mexico,” Rheumatology, vol. 48, no. 11, pp. 1392–1397, 2009.
[83]  E. Alexánderson, J. M. Ochoa, R. Calleja et al., “Endothelial dysfunction in systemic lupus erythematosus: evaluation with 13N-ammonia PET,” Journal of Nuclear Medicine, vol. 51, no. 12, pp. 1927–1931, 2010.
[84]  J. Romero-Díaz, F. Vargas-Vóracková, E. Kimura-Hayama, et al., “Systemic lupus erythematosus risk factors for coronary artery calcifications,” Rheumatology, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 110–119, 2012.
[85]  S. M. A. Toloza, J. M. Roseman, G. S. Alarcón et al., “Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic US cohort (LUMINA): XXII. Predictors of time to the occurrence of initial damage,” Arthritis and Rheumatism, vol. 50, no. 10, pp. 3177–3186, 2004.
[86]  A. J. Szalai, G. S. Alarcón, J. Calvo-Alén et al., “Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic US cohort (LUMINA). XXX: association between C-reactive protein (CRP) gene polymorphisms and vascular events,” Rheumatology, vol. 44, no. 7, pp. 864–868, 2005.
[87]  R. Kaiser, Y. Li, M. Chang et al., “Genetic risk factors for thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus,” Journal of Rheumatology, vol. 39, no. 8, pp. 1603–1610, 2012.
[88]  S. Finkielman, N. M. Bleichmar, M. Norymberg, and A. Agrest, “Arterial hypertension in systemic lupus erythematosus,” Medicina, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 165–170, 1969.
[89]  V. Bellomio, A. Spindler, E. Lucero et al., “Systemic lupus erythematosus: mortality and survival in Argentina. A multicenter study,” Lupus, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 377–381, 2000.
[90]  A. Zonana-Nacach, E. Santana-Sahagún, F. J. Jiménez-Balderas, et al., “Metabolic syndrome in Argentinean patients with systemic lupus erythematosus,” Lupus, vol. 18, no. 11, pp. 1019–1025, 2009.
[91]  L. M. Vilá, A. M. Mayor, A. H. Valentín, M. García-Soberal, and S. Vilá, “Clinical and immunological manifestations in 134 Puerto Rican patients with systemic lupus erythematosus,” Lupus, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 279–286, 1999.
[92]  V. E. Rodriguez, E. N. Gonzalez-Pares, and C. Rivera, “Clinical manifestations and vascular events in patients with lupus erythematosus anticardiolipin antibodies and raynaud's phenomenon,” Puerto Rico Health Sciences Journal, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 307–313, 2006.
[93]  M. Fernández, J. Calvo-Alén, A. M. Bertoli et al., “Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic US cohort (LUMINA L II): relationship between vascular events and the use of hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women,” Journal of Clinical Rheumatology, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 261–265, 2007.
[94]  A. M. Negrón, M. J. Molina, A. M. Mayor, V. E. Rodríguez, and L. M. Vilá, “Factors associated with metabolic syndrome in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus from Puerto Rico,” Lupus, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 348–354, 2008.
[95]  L. M. Yassin, J. Londo?o, G. Montoya et al., “Atherosclerosis development in SLE patients is not determined by monocytes ability to bind/endocytose Ox-LDL,” Autoimmunity, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 201–210, 2011.
[96]  P. Abumohor, C. Cerda, O. Neira et al., “Anticardiolipin antibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus: prevalence and clinical associations,” Revista Medica de Chile, vol. 119, no. 5, pp. 517–523, 1991.
[97]  D. Alarcón-Segovia, M. E. Alarcón-Riquelme, M. H. Cardiel et al., “Familial aggregation of systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, and other autoimmune diseases in 1,177 lupus patients from the GLADEL cohort,” Arthritis and Rheumatism, vol. 52, no. 4, pp. 1138–1147, 2005.
[98]  S. Manzi, E. N. Meilahn, J. E. Rairie et al., “Age-specific incidence rates of myocardial infarction and angina in women with systemic lupus erythematosus: comparison with the Framingham study,” The American Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 145, no. 5, pp. 408–415, 1997.
[99]  A. N. Kiani, L. Magder, and M. Petri, “Coronary calcium in systemic lupus erythematosus is associated with traditional cardiovascular risk factors, but not with disease activity,” Journal of Rheumatology, vol. 35, no. 7, pp. 1300–1306, 2008.
[100]  L. M. Fischer, R. G. Schlienger, C. Matter, H. Jick, and C. R. Meier, “Effect of rheumatoid arthritis or systemic lupus erythematosus on the risk of first-time acute myocardial infarction,” The American Journal of Cardiology, vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 198–200, 2004.
[101]  A. Doria, L. Iaccarino, A. Ghirardello et al., “Long-term prognosis and causes of death in systemic lupus erythematosus,” The American Journal of Medicine, vol. 119, no. 8, pp. 700–706, 2006.
[102]  T. Thompson, K. Sutton-Tyrrell, R. P. Wildman et al., “Progression of carotid intima-media thickness and plaque in women with systemic lupus erythematosus,” Arthritis and Rheumatism, vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 835–842, 2008.
[103]  M. Petri, S. Perez-Gutthann, D. Spence, and M. C. Hochberg, “Risk factors for coronary artery disease in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus,” The American Journal of Medicine, vol. 93, no. 5, pp. 513–519, 1992.
[104]  M. B. Urowitzx, D. Iba?ez, and D. D. Gladman, “Atherosclerotic vascular events in a single large lupus cohort: prevalence and risk factors,” Journal of Rheumatology, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 70–75, 2007.
[105]  M. B. Urowitz, D. Gladman, D. Iba?ez et al., “Atherosclerotic vascular events in a multinational inception cohort of systemic lupus erythematosus,” Arthritis Care and Research, vol. 62, no. 6, pp. 881–887, 2010.
[106]  D. P. M. Symmons and S. E. Gabriel, “Epidemiology of CVD in rheumatic disease, with a focus on RA and SLE,” Nature Reviews Rheumatology, vol. 7, no. 7, pp. 399–408, 2011.
[107]  L. V. Scalzi, S. Bhatt, R. C. Gilkeson, and M. L. Shaffer, “The relationship between race, cigarette smoking and carotid intimal medial thickness in systemic lupus erythematosus,” Lupus, vol. 18, no. 14, pp. 1289–1297, 2009.
[108]  M. B. Urowitz, D. Gladman, D. Iba?ez et al., “Clinical manifestations and coronary artery disease risk factors at diagnosis of systemic lupus erythematosus: data from an international inception cohort,” Lupus, vol. 16, no. 9, pp. 731–735, 2007.
[109]  J. Gustafsson, I. Gunnarsson, O. B?rjesson et al., “Predictors of the first cardiovascular event in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus—a prospective cohort study,” Arthritis Research and Therapy, vol. 11, no. 6, article R186, 2009.
[110]  J. T. Gustafsson, J. F. Simard, I. Gunnarsson et al., “Risk factors for cardiovascular mortality in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, a prospective cohort study,” Arthritis Research and Therapy, vol. 14, article R46, 2012.
[111]  A. M. Bertoli, L. M. Vilá, G. S. Alarcón et al., “Factors associated with arterial vascular events in PROFILE: a multiethnic lupus cohort,” Lupus, vol. 18, no. 11, pp. 958–965, 2009.
[112]  M. T. Driessen, L. L. J. Koppes, L. Veldhuis, D. Samoocha, and J. W. R. Twisk, “Coffee consumption is not related to the metabolic syndrome at the age of 36 years: the Amsterdam growth and health longitudinal study,” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 536–542, 2009.
[113]  C. S. P. M. Uiterwaal, W. M. M. Verschuren, H. B. Bueno-de-Mesquita et al., “Coffee intake and incidence of hypertension,” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 85, no. 3, pp. 718–723, 2007.
[114]  Z. Zhang, G. Hu, B. Caballero, L. Appel, and L. Chen, “Habitual coffee consumption and risk of hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies,” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 93, no. 6, pp. 1212–1219, 2011.
[115]  M. J. Klag, N. Y. Wang, L. A. Meoni et al., “Coffee intake and risk of hypertension: the Johns Hopkins precursors study,” Archives of Internal Medicine, vol. 162, no. 6, pp. 657–662, 2002.
[116]  A. Di Castelnuovo, R. Di Giuseppe, L. Iacoviello, and G. de Gaetano, “Consumption of cocoa, tea and coffee and risk of cardiovascular disease,” European Journal of Internal Medicine, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 15–25, 2012.
[117]  S. H. Jee, J. He, P. K. Whelton, I. Suh, and M. J. Klag, “The effect of chronic coffee drinking on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials,” Hypertension, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 647–652, 1999.
[118]  M. Nardini, F. Natella, and C. Scaccini, “Role of dietary polyphenols in platelet aggregation. A review of the supplementation studies,” Platelets, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 224–243, 2007.
[119]  M. Shechter, G. Shalmon, M. Scheinowitz et al., “Impact of acute caffeine ingestion on endothelial function in subjects with and without coronary artery disease,” The American Journal of Cardiology, vol. 107, no. 9, pp. 1255–1261, 2011.
[120]  E. Svenungsson, K. Jensen-Urstad, M. Heimbürger et al., “Risk factors for cardiovascular disease in systemic lupus erythematosus,” Circulation, vol. 104, no. 16, pp. 1887–1893, 2001.
[121]  M. J. Roman, J. E. Salmon, R. Sobel et al., “Prevalence and relation to risk factors of carotid atherosclerosis and left ventricular hypertrophy in systemic lupus erythematosus and antiphospholipid antibody syndrome,” The American Journal of Cardiology, vol. 87, no. 5, pp. 663–666, 2001.
[122]  P. López-Jaramillo, C. Velandia-Carrillo, J. Alvarez-Camacho, D. D. Cohen, T. Sánchez-Solano, and G. Castillo-López, “Inflammation and hypertension: are there regional differences?” International Journal of Hypertension, vol. 2013, Article ID 492094, 12 pages, 2013.
[123]  M. McMahon, J. Grossman, B. Skaggs et al., “Dysfunctional proinflammatory high-density lipoproteins confer increased risk of atherosclerosis in women with systemic lupus erythematosus,” Arthritis and Rheumatism, vol. 60, no. 8, pp. 2428–2437, 2009.
[124]  M. McMahon, B. J. Skaggs, L. Sahakian et al., “High plasma leptin levels confer increased risk of atherosclerosis in women with systemic lupus erythematosus, and are associated with inflammatory oxidised lipids,” Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, vol. 70, no. 9, pp. 1619–1624, 2011.
[125]  Z. Touma, D. D. Gladman, D. Iba?ez, and M. B. Urowitz, “Ability of non-fasting and fasting triglycerides to predict coronary artery disease in lupus patients,” Rheumatology, vol. 51, no. 3, Article ID ker339, pp. 528–534, 2012.
[126]  J. Mikdashi, B. Handwerger, P. Langenberg, M. Miller, and S. Kittner, “Baseline disease activity, hyperlipidemia, and hypertension are predictive factors for ischemic stroke and stroke severity in systemic lupus erythematosus,” Stroke, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 281–285, 2007.
[127]  M. Nikpour, M. B. Urowitz, D. Ibanez, P. J. Harvey, and D. D. Gladman, “Importance of cumulative exposure to elevated cholesterol and blood pressure in development of atherosclerotic coronary artery disease in systemic lupus erythematosus: a prospective proof-of-concept cohort study,” Arthritis Research and Therapy, vol. 13, article R156, 2011.
[128]  P. E. Westerweel, R. K. M. A. C. Luyten, H. A. Koomans, R. H. W. M. Derksen, and M. C. Verhaar, “Premature atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in systemic lupus erythematosus,” Arthritis and Rheumatism, vol. 56, no. 5, pp. 1384–1396, 2007.
[129]  J. Frosteg?rd, “Atherosclerosis in patients with autoimmune disorders,” Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, vol. 25, no. 9, pp. 1776–1785, 2005.
[130]  E. Y. Rhew and R. Ramsey-Goldman, “Premature atherosclerotic disease in systemic lupus erythematosus—role of inflammatory mechanisms,” Autoimmunity Reviews, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 101–105, 2006.
[131]  Y. Sherer and Y. Shoenfeld, “Mechanisms of disease: atherosclerosis in autoimmune diseases,” Nature Clinical Practice Rheumatology, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 99–106, 2006.
[132]  M. McMahon, B. H. Hahn, and B. J. Skaggs, “Systemic lupus erythematosus and cardiovascular disease: prediction and potential for therapeutic intervention,” Expert Review of Clinical Immunology, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 227–241, 2011.
[133]  M. Nikpour, M. B. Urowitz, and D. D. Gladman, “Premature atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus,” Rheumatic Disease Clinics of North America, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 329–354, 2005.
[134]  L. E. Full, C. Ruisanchez, and C. Monaco, “The inextricable link between atherosclerosis and prototypical inflammatory diseases rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus,” Arthritis Research and Therapy, vol. 11, no. 2, article 217, 2009.
[135]  J. C. Sarmiento-Monroy, J. Amaya-Amaya, J. S. Espinosa-Serna, C. Herrera-Díaz, J. M. Anaya, and A. Rojas-Villarraga, “Cardiovascular disease in rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic literature review in latin america,” Arthritis, vol. 2012, Article ID 371909, 17 pages, 2012.
[136]  J. Amaya-Amaya, J. C. Sarmiento-Monroy, R. D. Mantilla, R. Pineda-Tamayo, A. Rojas-Villarraga, and J. M. Anaya, “Novel risk factors for cardiovascular disease in rheumatoid arthritis,” Immunologic Research, vol. 56, no. 2-3, pp. 267–286, 2013.
[137]  L. N. Troelsen, P. Garred, B. Christiansen, C. Torp-Pedersen, and S. Jacobsen, “Genetically determined serum levels of mannose-binding lectin correlate negatively with common carotid intima-media thickness in systemic lupus erythematosus,” Journal of Rheumatology, vol. 37, no. 9, pp. 1815–1821, 2010.
[138]  B. Marasini, M. Massarotti, M. de Monti, M. Erario, G. Ghilardi, and M. L. Biondi, “Genetic contribution to carotid vascular disease in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus,” Journal of Clinical Immunology, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 131–133, 2008.
[139]  J. M. Kahlenberg and M. J. Kaplan, “Mechanisms of premature atherosclerosis in rheumatoid arthritis and lupus,” Annual Review of Medicine, vol. 64, pp. 249–263, 2013.
[140]  V. K. Kawai, J. F. Solus, A. Oeser et al., “Novel cardiovascular risk prediction models in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus,” Lupus, vol. 20, no. 14, pp. 1526–1534, 2011.
[141]  P. W. F. Wilson, “Evidence of systemic inflammation and estimation of coronary artery disease risk: a population perspective,” The American Journal of Medicine, vol. 121, no. 10, pp. S15–S20, 2008.
[142]  P. M. Ridker, J. E. Buring, N. Rifai, and N. R. Cook, “Development and validation of improved algorithms for the assessment of global cardiovascular risk in women: the Reynolds risk score,” The Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 297, no. 6, pp. 611–619, 2007.
[143]  M. J. L. Peters, D. P. M. Symmons, D. McCarey et al., “EULAR evidence-based recommendations for cardiovascular risk management in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and other forms of inflammatory arthritis,” Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, vol. 69, no. 2, pp. 325–331, 2010.
[144]  M. Petri and L. Magder, “SLE cardiovascular risk equation,” Lupus, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 3–5, 2013.
[145]  J. R. Elliott, S. Manzi, and D. Edmundowicz, “The role of preventive cardiology in systemic lupus erythematosus,” Current Rheumatology Reports, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 125–130, 2007.
[146]  I. N. Bruce, “Cardiovascular disease in lupus patients: should all patients be treated with statins and aspirin?” Best Practice and Research: Clinical Rheumatology, vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 823–838, 2005.
[147]  J. R. Elliott and S. Manzi, “Cardiovascular risk assessment and treatment in systemic lupus erythematosus,” Best Practice and Research: Clinical Rheumatology, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 481–494, 2009.
[148]  M. A. Petri, A. N. Kiani, W. Post, L. Christopher-Stine, and L. S. Magder, “Lupus Atherosclerosis Prevention Study (LAPS),” Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, vol. 70, no. 5, pp. 760–765, 2011.
[149]  I. Ben-Zvi, S. Kivity, P. Langevitz, and Y. Shoenfeld, “Hydroxychloroquine: from malaria to autoimmunity,” Clinical Reviews in Allergy and Immunology, vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 145–153, 2012.
[150]  S. J. Katz and A. S. Russell, “Re-evaluation of antimalarials in treating rheumatic diseases: re-appreciation and insights into new mechanisms of action,” Current Opinion in Rheumatology, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 278–281, 2011.
[151]  S. J. Morris, M. C. M. Wasko, J. L. Antohe et al., “Hydroxychloroquine use associated with improvement in lipid profiles in rheumatoid arthritis patients,” Arthritis Care and Research, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 530–534, 2011.
[152]  S. K. Penn, A. H. Kao, L. L. Schott et al., “Hydroxychloroquine and glycemia in women with rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus,” Journal of Rheumatology, vol. 37, no. 6, pp. 1136–1142, 2010.
[153]  L. R. Rekedal, E. Massarotti, R. Garg et al., “Changes in glycosylated hemoglobin after initiation of hydroxychloroquine or methotrexate treatment in diabetes patients with rheumatic diseases,” Arthritis and Rheumatism, vol. 62, no. 12, pp. 3569–3573, 2010.
[154]  R. Kaiser, C. M. Cleveland, and L. A. Criswell, “Risk and protective factors for thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus: results from a large, multi-ethnic cohort,” Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, vol. 68, no. 2, pp. 238–241, 2009.
[155]  H. Jung, R. Bobba, J. Su et al., “The protective effect of antimalarial drugs on thrombovascular events in systemic lupus erythematosus,” Arthritis and Rheumatism, vol. 62, no. 3, pp. 863–868, 2010.
[156]  M. Petri, “Use of hydroxychloroquine to prevent thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus and in antiphospholipid antibody-positive patients,” Current Rheumatology Reports, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 77–80, 2011.
[157]  G. S. Alarcón, G. McGwin, A. M. Bertoli et al., “Effect of hydroxychloroquine on the survival of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: data from LUMINA, a multiethnic US cohort (LUMINA L),” Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, vol. 66, no. 9, pp. 1168–1172, 2007.
[158]  C. Perricone, N. Agmon-Levin, S. Colafrancesco, and Y. Shoenfeld, “Vitamins and systemic lupus erythematosus: to D or not to D,” Expert Review of Clinical Immunology, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 397–399, 2013.
[159]  M. Mosca, C. Tani, M. Aringer et al., “European league against rheumatism recommendations for monitoring patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in clinical practice and in observational studies,” Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, vol. 69, no. 7, pp. 1269–1274, 2010.

Full-Text

Contact Us

service@oalib.com

QQ:3279437679

WhatsApp +8615387084133