Population-based studies have consistently shown that our diet has an influence on health. Therefore, the aim of our study was to analyze differences between different dietary habit groups in terms of health-related variables. The sample used for this cross-sectional study was taken from the Austrian Health Interview Survey AT-HIS 2006/07. In a first step, subjects were matched according to their age, sex, and socioeconomic status (SES). After matching, the total number of subjects included in the analysis was 1320 (N = 330 for each form of diet – vegetarian, carnivorous diet rich in fruits and vegetables, carnivorous diet less rich in meat, and carnivorous diet rich in meat). Analyses of variance were conducted controlling for lifestyle factors in the following domains: health (self-assessed health, impairment, number of chronic conditions, vascular risk), health care (medical treatment, vaccinations, preventive check-ups), and quality of life. In addition, differences concerning the presence of 18 chronic conditions were analyzed by means of Chi-square tests. Overall, 76.4% of all subjects were female. 40.0% of the individuals were younger than 30 years, 35.4% between 30 and 49 years, and 24.0% older than 50 years. 30.3% of the subjects had a low SES, 48.8% a middle one, and 20.9% had a high SES. Our results revealed that a vegetarian diet is related to a lower BMI and less frequent alcohol consumption. Moreover, our results showed that a vegetarian diet is associated with poorer health (higher incidences of cancer, allergies, and mental health disorders), a higher need for health care, and poorer quality of life. Therefore, public health programs are needed in order to reduce the health risk due to nutritional factors.
References
[1]
American Dietetic Association, Dietitians of Canada (2003) Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: vegetarian diets. Can J Diet Pract Res 64(2): 62–81. doi: 10.3148/64.2.2003.62
[2]
Craig WJ (2009) Health effects of vegan diets. Am J Clin Nutr 89(5): 1627s–1633s. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736n
[3]
Craig WJ (2010) Nutrition concerns and health effects of vegetarian diets. Nutr Clin Pract 25(6): 613–20. doi: 10.1177/0884533610385707
[4]
Craig WJ, Mangels AR (2009) American Dietetic Association (2009) Position of the American Dietetic Association: vegetarian diets. J Am Diet Assoc 109(7): 1266–82. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2009.05.027
[5]
Dwyer JT (1988) Health aspects of vegetarian diets. Am J Clin Nutr 48: 712–38.
[6]
Key TJ, Appleby PN, Davey GK, Allen NE, Spencer EA, et al. (2003) Mortality in British vegetarians: review and preliminary results from EPIC-Oxford. Am J Clin Nutr 78: 533s–58s.
[7]
Key TJ, Appleby PN, Rosell MS (2006) Health effects of vegetarian and vegan diets. Proc Nutr Soc 65(1): 35–41. doi: 10.1079/pns2005481
[8]
Deriemaeker P, Alewaeters K, Hebbelinck M, Lefvre J, Philippaerts R, et al. (2010) Nutritional status of Flemish vegetarians compared with non-vegetarians: a matched sample study. Nutrients 2(7): 770–80. doi: 10.3390/nu2070770
[9]
Baines S, Powers J, Brown WJ (2007) How does the health and well-being of young Australian vegetarian women compare with non-vegetarians? Public Health Nutr 10(5): 436–42. doi: 10.1017/s1368980007217938
[10]
Farmer B, Larson BT, Fulgoni VL, Rainville AJ, Liepa GU (2011) A vegetarian dietary pattern as a nutrient-dense approach to weight management: an analysis of the national health and nutrition examination survey 1999–2004. J Am Diet Assoc 111(6): 819–27. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2011.03.012
[11]
Rizzo NS, Sabaté J, Jaceldo-Siegl K, Fraser GE (2011) Vegetarian dietary patterns are associated with a lower risk of metabolic syndrome: the adventist health study 2. Diabetes Care 34(5): 1225–27. doi: 10.2337/dc10-1221
[12]
Tonstad S, Butler T, Yan R, Fraser GE (2009) Type of vegetarian diet, body weight, and prevalence of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes care 32(5): 791–96. doi: 10.2337/dc08-1886
[13]
Pollard J, Greenwood D, Kirk S, Cade J (2001) Lifestyle factors affecting fruit and vegetable consumption in the UK women’s cohort study. Appetite 37(1): 71–79. doi: 10.1006/appe.2001.0415
[14]
Gacek M (2010) Selected lifestyle and health condition indices of adults with varied models of eating. Rocz Pantsw Zakl Hig 61(1): 65–69.
[15]
Low Dog T (2010) The role of nutrition in mental health. Altern Ther Health Med 16(2): 42–46.
[16]
Michalak J, Zhang XC, Jacobi F (2012) Vegetarian diet and mental disorders: results from a representative community survey. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 9: 67. doi: 10.1186/1479-5868-9-67
[17]
Singh PN, Sabaté J, Fraser GE (2003) Does low meat intake increase life expectancy in humans? Am J Clin Nutr 78(3): 526s–32s.
[18]
McEvoy CT, Temple N, Woodside JV (2012) Vegetarian diets, low-meat diets and health: a review. Public Health Nutr 15: 2287–2294. doi: 10.1017/s1368980012000936
[19]
Appelby PN, Thorogood M, Mann JI, Key TJA (1999) The Oxford vegetarian study: an overview. Am J Clin Nutr 70: 525s–31s.
[20]
Frentzel-Beyme R, Chang-Claude J (1994) Vegetarian diets and colon cancer: the German experience. Am J Clin Nutr 59: 143s–52s.
[21]
Burkert NT, Gro？sch？dl F, Muckenhuber J, Rásky é, Stronegger WJ, et al. (2012) Gastro-intestinal complaints related to various eating behaviours. J Nutr Therapeutics 1: 19–23. doi: 10.6000/1929-5634.2012.01.01.3
[22]
Tantamango-Bartley Y, Jaceldo-Siegl K, Fan J, Fraser G (2013) Vegetarian Diets and the Incidence of Cancer in a Low-risk Population. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 22(2). DOI:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-12.1060.
[23]
Flood A, Velie AM, Sinha R, Chaterjee N, Lacey JV, et al. (2003) Meat, fat, and their subtypes as risk factors for colorectal cancer in a prospective cohort study in women. Am J Epidemiol 158: 59–68. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwg099
[24]
Mathew A, Peters U, Chatterjee N, Kulldorff M, Sinha R (2004) Fat, fiber, fruits, vegetables, and risk of colorectal adenomas. Int J Cancer 108: 287–292. doi: 10.1002/ijc.10984
[25]
Seow A, Quah SR, Nyam D, Straughan PT, Chua T, et al. (2002) Food groups and the risk of colorectan carcinomas in an Asian population. Cancer 95: 2390–2396. doi: 10.1002/cncr.10971
[26]
Vang A, Singh PN, Lee JW, Haddad EH, Brinegar CH (2008) Meats, processed meats, obesity, weight gain and occurrence of diabetes among adults: findings from Adventist Health Studies. Ann Nutr Metab 52(2): 96–104. doi: 10.1159/000121365
[27]
Boutron-Ruault MC, Senesse P, Meance S, Belghiti C, Faivre J (2001) Energy intake, body mass index, physical activity, and the colorectal adenoma-carcinoma sequence. Nutr Cancer 39: 50–57. doi: 10.1207/s15327914nc391_7
[28]
Appleby PN, Key TJ, Thorogood M, Burr ML, Mann J (2002) Mortality in British vegetarians. Public Health Nutr 5(1): 29–36. doi: 10.1079/phn2001248
[29]
Chang-Claude J, Hermann S, Eilber U, Steindorf K (2005) Lifestyle determinants and mortality in German vegetarians and health-conscious persons: results of a 21-year follow-up. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 14(4): 963–68. doi: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-04-0696
[30]
Fraser GE (2009) Vegetarian diets: what do we know of their effects on common chronic diseases? Am J Clin Nutr 89: 1607s–12s. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736k
[31]
Sabaté J (2003a) The contribution of vegetarian diets to health and disease: a paradigm shift? Am J Clin Nutr 78: 502s–7s.
[32]
Sabaté J (2003b) The contribution of vegetarian diets to human health. Forum Nutr 56: 218–20.
[33]
Karlic H, Schuster D, Varga F, Klindert G, Lapin A, et al. (2008) Vegetarian diet affects genes of oxidative metabolism and collagen synthesis. Ann Nutr Metab 53(1): 29–32. doi: 10.1159/000152871
[34]
Kornsteiner M, Singer I, Elmadfa I (2008) Very low n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid status in Austrian vegetarians and vegans. Ann Nutr Metab 52(1): 37–47. doi: 10.1159/000118629
[35]
Majchrzak D, Singer I, Maenner M, Rust P, Genser D, et al. (2006) B-vitamin status and concentrations of homocysteine in Austrian omnivores, vegetarians and vegans. Ann Nutr Metab 50(6): 485–91. doi: 10.1159/000095828
[36]
Schumacher M, Eber B, Schallmoser K, Toplak H, Zweiker R, et al. (1993) Eating behavior of patients with metabolic diseases and metabolically healthy probands in Austria. Results of a questionnaire survey at the Graz Autumn Fair 1991. Wien Med Wochenschr 43(12): 329–23.
[37]
Klimont J, Kytir J, Leitner B (2007) Austrian Health Interview Survey 2006/07. (Oesterreichische Gesundheitsbefragung 2006/07. Hauptergebnisse und methodische Dokumentation.) Wien: Statistik Austria.
[38]
Bauer GF, Huber CA, Jenny GJ, Mueller F, Haemming O (2009) Socioeconomic status, working conditions and self-rated health in Switzerland: explaining the gradient in men and women. International J Pub Health 54: 23–30. doi: 10.1007/s00038-008-7077-2
[39]
Volkert D (2006) The body mass index (BMI) – an important parameter to evaluate the nutritional status [Der Body-Mass-Index (BMI) – ein wichtiger Parameter zur Beurteilung des Ern？hrungszustandes]. Aktuel Ernaehr Med 31: 126–132. doi: 10.1055/s-2006-932601
[40]
Dorner TE, Rieder A (2010) Obesity paradox or reverse epidemiology: is hight body weight a protective factor for various chronic conditions? [Das Adipositasparadoxon oder Reverse Epidemiologie. Hohes K？rpergewicht als protektiver Faktor bei bestimmten chronischen Bedingungen? ] Dtsch Med Wochenschr 135: 413–418.
[41]
Burkert NT, Rásky E, Freidl W (2012) Social inequalities regarding health and health behaviour in Austrian adults. Wien klin Wochenschr 7–8: 256–261. doi: 10.1007/s00508-012-0164-7
[42]
OECD Social Policy Division (2009) “What are equivalence scales?” Available: http://www.oecd.org/els/social.
[43]
World Health Organization (2013) Global database on Body Mass Index. BMI classification. Available: http://apps.who.int/bmi/index.jsp?introP？age=intro_3.html. Accessed 2013 September 17.
[44]
Craig CL, Marshall A, Sjostrom M, Bauman AE, Booth ML, et al. (2003) International Physical Activity Questionnaire: 12 country reliability and validity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 35(8): 1381–1395. doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000078924.61453.fb
[45]
World Health Organization (1996) WHOQOL-BREF. Introduction, Administration, Scoring, and Generic Version of the Assessment. Geneva: WHO. Available: http://www.who.int/mental_health/media/e？n/76.pdf.
[46]
Leitzmann C (2005) Vegetarian diets: what are the advantages? Forum Nutr 57: 147–56. doi: 10.1159/000083787
