全部 标题 作者
关键词 摘要

OALib Journal期刊
ISSN: 2333-9721
费用:99美元

查看量下载量

相关文章

更多...
PLOS ONE  2013 

The Effect of Intervertebral Cartilage on Neutral Posture and Range of Motion in the Necks of Sauropod Dinosaurs

DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078214

Full-Text   Cite this paper   Add to My Lib

Abstract:

The necks of sauropod dinosaurs were a key factor in their evolution. The habitual posture and range of motion of these necks has been controversial, and computer-aided studies have argued for an obligatory sub-horizontal pose. However, such studies are compromised by their failure to take into account the important role of intervertebral cartilage. This cartilage takes very different forms in different animals. Mammals and crocodilians have intervertebral discs, while birds have synovial joints in their necks. The form and thickness of cartilage varies significantly even among closely related taxa. We cannot yet tell whether the neck joints of sauropods more closely resembled those of birds or mammals. Inspection of CT scans showed cartilage:bone ratios of 4.5% for Sauroposeidon and about 20% and 15% for two juvenile Apatosaurus individuals. In extant animals, this ratio varied from 2.59% for the rhea to 24% for a juvenile giraffe. It is not yet possible to disentangle ontogenetic and taxonomic signals, but mammal cartilage is generally three times as thick as that of birds. Our most detailed work, on a turkey, yielded a cartilage:bone ratio of 4.56%. Articular cartilage also added 11% to the length of the turkey's zygapophyseal facets. Simple image manipulation suggests that incorporating 4.56% of neck cartilage into an intervertebral joint of a turkey raises neutral posture by 15°. If this were also true of sauropods, the true neutral pose of the neck would be much higher than has been depicted. An additional 11% of zygapophyseal facet length translates to 11% more range of motion at each joint. More precise quantitative results must await detailed modelling. In summary, including cartilage in our models of sauropod necks shows that they were longer, more elevated and more flexible than previously recognised.

References

[1]  Taylor MP, Wedel MJ (2013) Why sauropods had long necks; and why giraffes have short necks. PeerJ 1: e36 doi:10.7717/peerj.36.
[2]  Paul GS (1988) The brachiosaur giants of the Morrison and Tendaguru with a description of a new subgenus, Giraffatitan, and a comparison of the world's largest dinosaurs. Hunteria 2(3): 1–14.
[3]  Carpenter K (2006) Biggest of the big: a critical re-evaluation of the mega-sauropod Amphicoelias fragillimus Cope, 1878. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin 36: 131–137.
[4]  Sander PM, Christian A, Clauss M, Fechner R, Gee CT, et al. (2011) Biology of the sauropod dinosaurs: the evolution of gigantism. Biological Reviews 86: 117–155 doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2010.00137.x.
[5]  Marsh OC (1883) Principal characters of American Jurassic dinosaurs. Pt. VI. Restoration of Brontosaurus. American Journal of Science, Series 3 26: 81–85.
[6]  Hatcher JB (1901) Diplodocus (Marsh): its osteology, taxonomy and probable habits, with a restoration of the skeleton. Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum 1: 1–63.
[7]  Matthew WD (1905) The mounted skeleton of Brontosaurus. The American Museum Journal 5: 62–70.
[8]  Knight CR (1897) Restoration of Brontosaurus. Hall of Saurischian Dinosaurs, American Museum of Natural History. Guache on artist board.
[9]  Zallinger RF (1947) The Age of Reptiles. Mural in the Dinosaur Hall, Yale Peabody Museum.
[10]  Burian Z (1941) Snorkelling Brachiosaurus. Reproduced in: Augusta, Joseph (1957) Prehistoric Animals. London: Spring Books.
[11]  Bakker RT (1986) The Dinosaur Heresies. New York: Morrow. 481 p.
[12]  Spielberg S (1993) Jurassic Park. Amblin Entertainment.
[13]  Stevens KA, Parrish JM (1999) Neck posture and feeding habits of two Jurassic sauropod dinosaurs. Science 284: 798–800.
[14]  Martin J (1987) Mobility and feeding of Cetiosaurus (Saurischia: Sauropoda) - why the long neck? Occasional Papers of the Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology (Fourth Symposium on Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems) 3: 154–159.
[15]  Haines T (1999) Walking with Dinosaurs. BBC Worldwide.
[16]  Stevens K (2002) DinoMorph: Parametric modeling of skeletal structures. Senckenbergiana Lethaea 82: 23–34.
[17]  Stevens KA, Parrish JM (2005) Digital reconstructions of sauropod dinosaurs and implications for feeding. In: Tidwell V, Carpenter K, editors. The Sauropods: Evolution and Paleobiology. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 178–200.
[18]  Stevens KA, Parrish JM (2005) Neck posture, dentition, and feeding strategies in Jurassic sauropod dinosaurs. In: Curry Rogers K, Wilson J, editors. Thunder-lizards: the sauropodomorph dinosaurs. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 212–232.
[19]  Dzemski G, Christian A (2007) Flexibility along the neck of the ostrich (Struthio camelus) and consequences for the reconstruction of dinosaurs with extreme neck length. Journal of Morphology 268: 701–714 doi:10.1002/jmor.10542.
[20]  Taylor MP, Wedel MJ, Naish D (2009) Head and neck posture in sauropod dinosaurs inferred from extant animals. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 54: 213–220.
[21]  Christian A (2010) Some sauropods raised their necks — evidence for high browsing in Euhelopus zdanskyi. Biol Lett 6: 823–825 doi:10.1098/rsbl.2010.0359.
[22]  Upchurch P (2000) Neck Posture of Sauropod Dinosaurs. Science 287: 547b.
[23]  Paul GS (2000) Restoring the life appearances of dinosaurs. In: Paul GS, editor. The Scientific American book of dinosaurs. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 78–106.
[24]  Schwarz D, Wings O, Meyer CA (2007) Super sizing the giants: first cartilage preservation at a sauropod dinosaur limb joint. Journal of the Geological Society 164: 61–65 doi:10.1144/0016-76492006-019.
[25]  Mallison H (2010) CAD assessment of the posture and range of motion of Kentrosaurus aethiopicus Hennig 1915. Swiss Journal of Geosciences 103: 211–233.
[26]  Emerson CL, Eurell JAC, Brown MD, Walsh M, Odell D, et al. (1990) Ruptured intervertebral disc in a juvenile king penguin (Aptenodytes patagonica). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 21: 345–350.
[27]  Holliday CM, Ridgely RC, Sedlmayr JC, Witmer LM (2010) Cartilaginous epiphyses in extant archosaurs and their implications for reconstructing limb function in dinosaurs. PLoS ONE 5: e13120 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013120.
[28]  Mallison H (2010) The digital Plateosaurus II: an assessment of the range of motion of the limbs and vertebral column and of previous reconstructions using a digital skeletal mount. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 55: 433–458 doi:10.4202/app.2009.0075.
[29]  Bonnan MF, Sandrik JL, Nishiwaki T, Wilhite DR, Elsey RM, et al. (2010) Calcified cartilage shape in archosaur long bones reflects overlying joint shape in stress-bearing elements: Implications for nonavian dinosaur locomotion. The Anatomical Record: Advances in Integrative Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology 293: 2044–2055 doi:10.1002/ar.21266.
[30]  Wake MH, editor (1992) Hyman's comparative vertebrate anatomy, 4th ed. University of Chicago Press. Available: http://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr?=&id=VKlWjdOkiMwC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Hyman?%27sComparativeVertebrateAnatomy&ots=Kf4?jZ2q4BS&sig=-Hqon9F-i3hNIIwJ7cUWr5NItv4. Accessed 13 August 2013.
[31]  Liem KF, Walker WF, Bemis WE, Grande L (2001) Functional anatomy of the vertebrates: an evolutionary perspective. Harcourt College Publishers Philadelphia. Available: http://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/clc/18693?44. Accessed 13 August 2013.
[32]  Baumel JJ, King AS, Breazile JE, Evans HE, Berge JCV (1993) Handbook of Avian Anatomy: Nomina Anatomica Avium, Second Edition. CambridgeMassachusetts: Nuttall Ornithological Club. 779 p.
[33]  Witmer LM (1995) The extant phylogenetic bracket and the importance of reconstructing soft tissues in fossils. In: Thomason JJ, editor. Functional morphology in vertebrate paleontology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 19–33.
[34]  Hultgren BD, Wallner-Pendleton E, Watrous BJ, Blythe LL (1987) Cervical dorsal spondylosis with spinal cord compression in a black swan (Cygnus atratus). J Wildl Dis 23: 705–708.
[35]  Wedel MJ, Cifelli RL, Sanders RK (2000) Sauroposeidon proteles, a new sauropod from the Early Cretaceous of Oklahoma. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 20: 109–114.
[36]  Wedel MJ, Cifelli RL, Sanders RK (2000) Osteology, paleobiology, and relationships of the sauropod dinosaur Sauroposeidon. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 45: 343–388.
[37]  Wedel MJ, Cifelli RL (2005) Sauroposeidon: Oklahoma's native giant. Oklahoma Geology Notes 65: 40–57.
[38]  McIntosh JS (1981) Annotated catalogue of the dinosaurs (Reptilia, Archosauria) in the collections of Carnegie Museum of Natural History. Bulletin of the Carnegie Museum 18: 1–67.
[39]  Wedel MJ, Sanders RK (2002) Osteological correlates of cervical musculature in Aves and Sauropoda (Dinosauria: Saurischia), with comments on the cervical ribs of Apatosaurus. PaleoBios 22: 1–6.
[40]  Harvey EB, Kaiser HE, Rosenberg LE (1968) An atlas of the domestic turkey (Meleagris gallopavo): myology and osteology. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Division of Biology and Medicine. 268 p.
[41]  Janensch W (1950) Die Wirbelsaule von Brachiosaurus brancai. Palaeontographica (Suppl 7) 3: 27–93.
[42]  Wedel MJ (2005) Postcranial skeletal pneumaticity in sauropods and its implications for mass estimates. The Sauropods: Evolution and Paleobiology. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 201–228.
[43]  Gilmore CW (1936) Osteology of Apatosaurus, with special reference to specimens in the Carnegie Museum. Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum 11: 175–298.
[44]  Wedel MJ (2003) The evolution of vertebral pneumaticity in sauropod dinosaurs. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 23: 344–357.
[45]  Vidal PP, Graf W, Berthoz A (1986) The orientation of the cervical vertebral column in unrestrained awake animals. Exp Brain Res 61: 549–559 doi:10.1007/BF00237580.
[46]  Graf W, De Waele C, Vidal PP (1995) Functional anatomy of the head-neck movement system of quadrupedal and bipedal mammals. J Anat 186: 55–74.
[47]  Cobley MJ, Rayfield EJ, Barrett PM (2013) Inter-vertebral flexibility of the ostrich neck: implications for estimating sauropod neck flexibility. PLOS ONE 8: e72187 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0072187.
[48]  Kimball S, Mattis P (2010) GIMP - The GNU Image Manipulation Program. Available: http://www.gimp.org/. Accessed 10 March 2013.
[49]  Wagner PC, Bagby GW, Grant BD, Gallina A, Ratzlaff M, et al. (1979) Surgical Stabilization of the Equine Cervical Spine. Veterinary Surgery 8: 7–12 doi:10.1111/j.1532-950X.1979.tb00596.x.
[50]  Papageorges M, Gavin PR, Sande RD, Barbee DD, Grant BD (1987) Radiographic and Myelographic Examination of the Cervical Vertebral Column in 306 Ataxic Horses. Veterinary Radiology 28: 53–59 doi:10.1111/j.1740-8261.1987.tb01725.x.
[51]  Whitwell KE, Dyson S (1987) Interpreting radiographs 8: Equine cervical vertebrae. Equine Veterinary Journal 19: 8–14 doi:10.1111/j.2042-3306.1987.tb02568.x.
[52]  Hudson NPH, Mayhew IG (2005) Radiographic and myelographic assessment of the equine cervical vertebral column and spinal cord. Equine Veterinary Education 17: 34–38 doi:10.1111/j.2042-3292.2005.tb00333.x.
[53]  Glass K, Baird AN, Baird DK, Del Piero F (2003) Vertebral malformation in two alpacas. The Camelid Quarterly June 2003: 1–2.
[54]  McKenzie EC, Seguin B, Cebra CK, Margiocco ML, Anderson DE, et al. (2010) Esophageal dysfunction in four alpaca crias and a llama cria with vascular ring anomalies. J Am Vet Med Assoc 237: 311–316 doi:10.2460/javma.237.3.311.
[55]  McKee WM, Butterworth SJ, Scott HW (1999) Management of cervical spondylopathy-associated intervertebral, disc protrusions using metal washers in 78 dogs. J Small Anim Pract 40: 465–472.
[56]  Levitski RE, Lipsitz D, Chauvet AE (1999) Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Cervical Spine in 27 Dogs. Veterinary Radiology & Ultrasound 40: 332–341 doi:–10.1111/j.1740–8261.1999.tb02120.x.
[57]  Da Costa RC, Parent J, Dobson H, Holmberg D, Partlow G (2006) Comparison of magnetic resonance imaging and myelography in 18 Doberman pinscher dogs with cervical spondylomyelopathy. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 47: 523–531.
[58]  Evans M (1993) An investigation into the neck flexibility of two plesiosauroid plesiosaurs: Cryptoclidus eurymerus and Muraenosaurus leedsii. University College: MSc thesis. London p.
[59]  Kapandji IA (2008) The physiology of the joints: annotated diagrams of the mechanics of the human joints Vol. 3, Vol. 3,. Edinburgh [etc.]: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier.
[60]  Mallison H (2010) The digital Plateosaurus I: body mass, mass distribution, and posture assessed using CAD and CAE on a digitally mounted complete skeleton. Palaeontologia Electronica 13. Available: http://www.uv.es/~pardomv/pe/2010_2/198/?abstracts.html. Accessed 24 November 2012.
[61]  Taylor MP (2009) A re-evaluation of Brachiosaurus altithorax Riggs 1903 (Dinosauria, Sauropoda) and its generic separation from Giraffatitan brancai (Janensch 1914). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 29: 787–806.
[62]  Frey E (1988) Anatomie des K?rperstammes von Alligator mississippiensis Daudin. Stuttgarter Beitr?ge zur Naturkunde 424: 1–106.

Full-Text

Contact Us

service@oalib.com

QQ:3279437679

WhatsApp +8615387084133