OALib Journal期刊
ISSN: 2333-9721
费用：99美元

投递稿件

查看量	下载量

相关文章
更多...

PLOS ONE 2013

Aquatic Ecosystem Response to Timber Harvesting for the Purpose of Restoring Aspen

DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084561

Bobette E. Jones, Monika Krupa, Kenneth W. Tate

Full-Text Cite this paper Add to My Lib

Abstract:

The removal of conifers through commercial timber harvesting has been successful in restoring aspen, however many aspen stands are located near streams, and there are concerns about potential aquatic ecosystem impairment. We examined the effects of management-scale conifer removal from aspen stands located adjacent to streams on water quality, solar radiation, canopy cover, temperature, aquatic macroinvertebrates, and soil moisture. This 8-year study (2003–2010) involved two projects located in Lassen National Forest. The Pine-Bogard Project consisted of three treatments adjacent to Pine and Bogard Creeks: (i) Phase 1 in January 2004, (ii) Phase 2 in August 2005, and (iii) Phase 3 in January 2008. The Bailey Project consisted of one treatment adjacent to Bailey Creek in September 2006. Treatments involved whole tree removal using track-laying harvesters and rubber tire skidders. More than 80% of all samples analyzed for NO3-N, NH4-N, and PO4-P at Pine, Bogard, and Bailey Creeks were below the detection limit, with the exception of naturally elevated PO4-P in Bogard Creek. All nutrient concentrations (NO3-N, NH4-N, PO4-P, K, and SO4-S) showed little variation within streams and across years. Turbidity and TSS exhibited annual variation, but there was no significant increase in the difference between upstream and downstream turbidity and TSS levels. There was a significant decrease in stream canopy cover and increase in the potential fraction of solar radiation reaching the streams in response to the Pine-Bogard Phase 3 and Bailey treatments; however, there was no corresponding increase in stream temperatures. Macroinvertebrate metrics indicated healthy aquatic ecosystem conditions throughout the course of the study. Lastly, the removal of vegetation significantly increased soil moisture in treated stands relative to untreated stands. These results indicate that, with careful planning and implementation of site-specific best management practices, conifer removal to restore aspen stands can be conducted without degrading aquatic ecosystems.

References

[1]	Perala DA (1991) Populus tremuloides Michx. In: RM BurnsBH Honkala. Handbook 654, Silvics of North America, Volume 2, Hardwoods. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. pp. 555-569.
[2]	Kuhn TJ, Safford HD, Jones BE, Tate KW (2011) Aspen (Populus tremuloides) stands and their contribution to plant diversity in a semiarid coniferous landscape. Plant Ecology 212: 1451-1463. doi:10.1007/s11258-011-9920-4.
[3]	Johns BW (1993) The influence of grove size on bird species richness in aspen parklands. Wilson Bulletin 105: 256-264.
[4]	Griffis-Kyle KL, Beier P (2003) Small isolated aspen stands enrich bird communities in southwestern ponderosa pine forests. Biological Conservation 110: 375-385. doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00237-9.
[5]	Richardson TW, Heath SK (2004) Effects of conifers on aspen-breeding bird communities in the Sierra Nevada. Trans Western Sect Wildlife Soc 40: 68-81.
[6]	Debyle NV (1985) Wildlife. In: NV DeByleRP Winokur. Aspen: ecology and management in the western United States. General Technical Report RM-119. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky . Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station . pp. 135-152.
[7]	Jones JR, DeByle NV, Bowers DM (1985) Insects and other invertebrates. In: NV DeByleRP Winokur. Aspen: ecology and management in the western United States. General Technical Report RM-119. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky . Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station . pp. 107-114.
[8]	LaMalfa EM, Ryle R (2008) Differential snowpack accumulation and water dynamics in aspen and conifer communities: implications for water yield and ecosystem function. Ecosystems 11: 569-581. doi:10.1007/s10021-008-9143-2.
[9]	Fechner GH, Barrows HS (1976) Aspen stands as wildfire fuel breaks. Eisenhower Consortium Bulletin 4. Available: . http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/aspen_bib/？5029/ . Accessed 5 December 2013.
[10]	Kilpatrick S, Clause D, Scott D (2003) Aspen response to prescribed fire, mechanical treatments, and ungulate herbivory. In: PN OmiLA Joyce. Fire, fuel treatments, and ecological restoration: conference proceedings 16-18 April 2002. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky . Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station . pp. 93-102.
[11]	Smith AE, Smith FW (2005) Twenty-year change in aspen dominance in pure aspen and mixed aspen/conifer stands on the Uncompahgre Plateau, Colorado, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 213: 338-348. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2005.03.018.
[12]	Rogers P (2002) Using Forest Health Monitoring to assess aspen forest cover change in the southern Rockies ecoregion. Forest Ecology and Management 155: 223-236. doi:10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00560-6.
[13]	Calder WJ, Horn KJ, St Clair SB (2011) Conifer expansion reduces the competitive ability and herbivore defense of aspen by modifying light environment and soil chemistry. Tree Physiol 31: 582-591. doi:10.1093/treephys/tpr041. PubMed: 21602559.
[14]	Rehfeldt GE, Ferguson DE, Crookston NL (2009) Aspen, climate, and sudden decline in western USA. Forest Ecology and Management 258: 2353-2364. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2009.06.005.
[15]	Bartos DL, Campbell RB Jr. (1998) Decline of quaking aspen in the Interior West: examples from Utah. Rangelands 20: 17-24.
[16]	Jones BE, Lile DF, Tate KW (2009) Effect of simulated browsing on aspen regeneration: implications for restoration. Rangeland Ecology and Management 62: 557-563 10.2111/.1/REM-D-09-00082.1.
[17]	Pierce AD, Taylor AH (2010) Competition and regeneration in quaking aspen-white fir (Populus tremuloides-Abies concolor) forests in the Northern Sierra Nevada, USA. Journal of Vegetation Science 21: 507-519. doi:10.1111/j.1654-1103.2009.01158.x.
[18]	Shepperd WD, Rogers PC, Burton D, Bartos DL (2006) Ecology, biodiversity, management, and restoration of aspen in the Sierra Nevada, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-178. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. p. 122.
[19]	Smith EA, O’Loughlin D, Buck JR, St Clair SB (2011) The influences of conifer succession, physiographic conditions and herbivory on quaking aspen regeneration after fire. Forest Ecology and Management 262: 325-330. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2011.03.038.
[20]	Doucet R (1989) Regeneration silviculture of aspen. Forestry Chronicle 65: 23-27.
[21]	Fraser EC, Lieffers VJ, Landhausser SM, Frey BR (2002) Soil nutrition and temperature as drivers of root suckering in trembling aspen. Canadian Journal Forest Research-Revue Canadienne de Recherche Forestiere 32: 1685-1691. doi:10.1139/x02-080.
[22]	Jones BE, Rickman TH, Vazquez A, Sado Y, Tate KW (2005) Removal of encroaching conifers to regenerate degraded aspen stands in the Sierra Nevada. Restoration Ecology 13: 373-379. doi:10.1111/j.1526-100X.2005.00046.x.
[23]	Shepperd WD (2001) Techniques to restore aspen forests in the western U.S. Trans Western Sect Wildlife Soc 40: 52-60.
[24]	White CA, Olmsted CE, Kay CE (1998) Aspen, elk, and fire in the Rocky Mountain national parks of North America. Wildlife Society Bulletin 26: 449-462.
[25]	Adams PW, Flint AL, Fredriksen RL (1991) Long-term patterns in soil-moisture and revegetation after a clear-cut of a douglas-fir forest in Oregon. Forest Ecology and Management 41: 249-263. doi:10.1016/0378-1127(91)90107-7.
[26]	Gray AN, Spies TA, Easter MJ (2002) Microclimatic and soil moisture responses to gap formation in coastal Douglas-fir forests. Canadian Journal Forest Research-Revue Canadienne de Recherche Forestiere 32: 332-343. doi:10.1139/x01-200.
[27]	Croke JC, Hairsine PB (2006) Sediment delivery in managed forests: a review. Environmental Reviews 14: 59-87. doi:10.1139/a05-016.
[28]	Tremblay Y, Rousseau AN, Plamondon AP, Levesque D, Prevost M (2009) Changes in stream water quality due to logging of the boreal forest in the Montmorency Forest, Quebec. Hydrological Processes 23: 764-776. doi:10.1002/hyp.7175.
[29]	Bolda KS, Meyers WJ (1997) Conducting a long-term water quality monitoring project: A case study on the McCloud River. California. Journal-- Journal of Soils and Water Conservation 52: 49-54.
[30]	Klein RD, Lewis J, Buffleben MS (2012) Logging and turbidity in the coastal watersheds of northern California. Geomorphology 139: 136-144.
[31]	Litschert SE, MacDonald LH (2009) Frequency and characteristics of sediment delivery pathways from forest harvest units to streams. Forest Ecology and Management 259: 143-150. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2009.09.038.
[32]	Karwan DL, Gravelle JA, Hubbart JA (2007) Effects of timber harvest on suspended sediment loads in Mica Creek, Idaho. Forest Science 53: 181-188.
[33]	Gravelle JA, Ice G, Link TE, Cook DL (2009) Nutrient concentration dynamics in an inland Pacific Northwest watershed before and after timber harvest. Forest Ecology and Management 257: 1663-1675. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2009.01.017.
[34]	Campbell IC, Doeg TJ (1989) Impact of timber harvesting and production on streams - a review. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 40: 519-539. doi:10.1071/MF9890519.
[35]	Poole GC, Berman CH (2001) An ecological perspective on in-stream temperature: Natural heat dynamics and mechanisms of human-caused thermal degradation. Environ Manage 27: 787-802. doi:10.1007/s002670010188. PubMed: 11393314.
[36]	Gravelle JA, Link TE (2007) Influence of timber harvesting on headwater peak stream temperatures in a northern Idaho watershed. Forest Science 53: 189-205.
[37]	Herlihy AT, Gerth WJ, Li J, Banks JL (2005) Macroinvertebrate community response to natural and forest harvest gradients in western Oregon headwater streams. Freshwater Biology 50: 905-919. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2427.2005.01363.x.
[38]	Reid DJ, Quinn JM, Wright-Stow AE (2010) Responses of stream macroinvertebrate communities to progressive forest harvesting: Influences of harvest intensity, stream size and riparian buffers. Forest Ecology and Management 260: 1804-1815. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2010.08.025.
[39]	Gravelle JA, Link TE, Broglio JR, Braatne JH (2009) Effects of Timber Harvest on Aquatic Macroinvertebrate Community Composition in a Northern Idaho. Watershed - Forest Science 55: 352-366.
[40]	Hotta N, Kayama T, Suzuki M (2007) Analysis of suspended sediment yields after low impact forest harvesting. Hydrological Processes 21: 3565-3575. doi:10.1002/hyp.6583.
[41]	Kreutzweiser DR, Capell SS, Good KP (2005) Macroinvertebrate community responses to selection logging in riparian and upland areas of headwater catchments in a northern hardwood forest. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 24: 208-222. doi:10.1899/0887-3593(2005)024.
[42]	Wang X, Burns DA, Yanai RD, Briggs RD, Germain RH (2006) Changes in stream chemistry and nutrient export following a partial harvest in the Catskill Mountains, New York, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 223: 103-112. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2005.10.060.
[43]	Hutchens JJ Jr., Batzer DP, Reese E (2003) Bioassessment of silvicultural impacts in streams and wetlands of the eastern United States. Water Air, Soil Pollut 00: 1-17.
[44]	Macdonald JS, Beaudry PG, MacIsaac EA, Herunter HE (2003) The effects of forest harvesting and best management practices on streamflow and suspended sediment concentrations during snowmelt in headwater streams in sub-boreal forests of British Columbia, Canada. Canadian Journal Forest Research-Revue Canadienne de Recherche Forestiere 33: 1397-1407. doi:10.1139/x03-110.
[45]	Martin CW, Hornbeck JW (2000) Impacts of intensive harvesting on hydrology and nutrient dynamics of northern hardwood forests. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 57: 19-29. doi:10.1139/f00-106.
[46]	Barbour MT, Gerritsen J, Snyder BD, Stribling JB (1999) Chapter 7.1 single habitat approach: 1-meter kick net. Rapid bioassessment protocols for use in streams and wadeable rivers: periphyton, benthic macroinvertebrates and fish - Second Edition EPA 841-B-99-002. Washington DC: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water.
[47]	Western Regional Climate Center (2012) Manzanita Lake Period of Record General Climate Summary - Precipitation. Available: . . Accessed 4 July 2013.
[48]	PRISM Climate Group (2010) PRISM Data Explorer. Oregon State University. Available: . . Accessed 24 February 2012.
[49]	Mosley MP, McKercher AI (1993) Streamflow. In: DR Maidment. Handbook of hydrology. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 8.1-8.39.
[50]	Eaton AD, Clesceri LS, Rice EW, Greenberg AE, Franson MAH (2005) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater: centennial edition. Washington DC: American Public Health Association. 1368 pp.
[51]	Flosi G, Downie S, Hopelain J, Bird M, Coey R, et al. (1998) California salmonid stream habitat restoration handbook: Appendix M, specialty instruments. California Department of Fish and Game. Available: . . Accessed 25 May 2012.
[52]	Platts WS, Armour C, Booth GD, Bryant M, Bufford JL et al. (1987) Methods for evaluating riparian habitats with applications to management. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-221. Available: . . Accessed 17 Febuary 2012.
[53]	Moulton SR II, Carter JL, Grotheer SA, Cufney TF, Short TM (2000) Methods of analysis by the U.S. Geological Survey National Water Quality Laboratory - processing, taxonomy, and quality control of benthic macroinvertebrate samples. United States Geological Survey Open-File Report 00-212. Available: . http://nwql.usgs.gov/OFR-00-212.shtml. Accessed 17 Febuary 2012.
[54]	Cuffney TF, Gurtz ME, Meador MR (1993) Methods for collecting benthic invertebrate samples as part of the National Water-Quality Assessment Program. United States Geological Survey Open-File Report 93-406. Available: . http://nc.water.usgs.gov/reports/abstrac？ts/ofr93406.html. Accessed 17 Febuary 2012.
[55]	Fowler WB, Lopushinsky W (1989) An economical, digital meter for gypsum soil-moisture blocks. Soil Science Society Of America Journal 53: 302-305. doi:10.2136/sssaj1989.03615995005300010057x.
[56]	Pinheiro JC, Bates DM (2000) Mixed-Effects Models in S and S-PLUS. New York: Springer.
[57]	Rabe-Hesketh S, Skrondal A (2008) Multilevel and Longitudinal Modeling Using Stata. College Station, TX: Stata Press.
[58]	Roche LM, Allen-Diaz B, Eastburn DJ, Tate KW (2012) Cattle grazing and Yosemite toad (Bufo canorus Camp) breeding habitat in Sierra Nevada meadows. Rangeland Ecology and Management 65: 56-65. doi:10.2111/REM-D-11-00092.1.
[59]	StataCorp (2009) Stata/SE 11.1 for Windows. College Station, TX: StataCorp LP.
[60]	Fenn ME, Baron JS, Allen EB, Rueth HM, Nydick KR et al. (2003) Ecological effects of nitrogen deposition in the western United States. Journal of Biosciences 53: 404-420. Available online at: doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[0404:EEONDI]2？.0.CO;2
[61]	Nijboer RC, Verdonschot PFM (2004) Variable selection for modelling effects of eutrophication on stream and river ecosystems. Ecological Modelling 177: 17-39. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2003.12.050.
[62]	Sickman JO, Melack JM, Clow DW (2003) Evidence for nutrient enrichment of high-elevation lakes in the Sierra Nevada, California. Limnology and Oceanography 48: 1885-1892. doi:10.4319/lo.2003.48.5.1885.
[63]	Wood PJ, Armitage PD (1997) Biological effects of fine sediment in the lotic environment. Environ Manage 21: 203-217. doi:10.1007/s002679900019. PubMed: 9008071.
[64]	Jewett K, Daugharty D, Krause HH, Arp PA (1995) Watershed responses to clear-cutting: Effects on soil solutions and stream water discharge in central New Brunswick. Canadian Journal of Soil Science 75: 475-490. doi:10.4141/cjss95-069.
[65]	Swank WT, Vose JM, Elliott KJ (2001) Long-term hydrologic and water quality responses following commercial clearcutting of mixed hardwoods on a southern Appalachian catchment. Forest Ecology and Management 143: 163-178. doi:10.1016/S0378-1127(00)00515-6.
[66]	Kreutzweiser D, Capell S, Good K, Holmes S (2009) Sediment deposition in streams adjacent to upland clearcuts and partially harvested riparian buffers in boreal forest catchments. Forest Ecology and Management 258: 1578-1585. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2009.07.005.
[67]	Binkley D, Ice GG, Kaye J, Williams CA (2004) Nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in forest streams of the United States. J Am Water Resour As 40: 1277-1291. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.2004.tb01586.x.
[68]	Dubrovsky NM, Burow KR, Clark GM, Gronberg JM, et al H. (2010) The quality of our nation’s waters - nutrients in the nation’s streams and groundwater, 1992–2004. United States Geological Survey Circular 1350.
[69]	Powlson DS, Addiscott TM, Benjamin N, Cassman KG, de Kok TM et al. (2008) When does nitrate become a risk for humans? J Environ Qual 37: 291-295. doi:10.2134/jeq2007.0177. PubMed: 18268290.
[70]	Johnson DW, Susfalk RB, Dahlgren RA (1997) Nutrient fluxes in forests of the eastern Sierra Nevada mountains, United States of America. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 11: 673-681. doi:10.1029/97GB01750.
[71]	Sickman JO, Melack JM, Stoddard JL (2002) Regional analysis of inorganic nitrogen yield and retention in high-elevation ecosystems of the Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains. Biogeochemistry 57: 341-374. doi:10.1023/A:1016564816701.
[72]	Roche LM, Kromschroeder L, Atwill ER, Dahlgren RA, Tate KW (2013) Water Quality Conditions Associated with Cattle Grazing and Recreation on National Forest Lands. PLOS ONE 8: e68127. PubMed: 23826370.
[73]	Gomi T, Moore RD, Hassan MA (2005) Suspended sediment dynamics in small forest streams of the Pacific Northwest. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 41: 877-898. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.2005.tb03775.x.
[74]	Hassan MA, Church M, Lisle TE, Brardinoni F, Benda L et al. (2005) Sediment transport and channel morphology of small, forested streams. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 41: 853-876. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.2005.tb03774.x.
[75]	Cooper AB, Thomsen CE (1988) Nitrogen and phosphorus in streamwaters from adjacent pasture, pine, and native forest catchments. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 22: 279-291. doi:10.1080/00288330.1988.9516300.
[76]	Walker TW, Syers JK (1976) Fate of phosphorus during pedogenesis. Geoderma 15: 1-19. doi:10.1016/0016-7061(76)90066-5.
[77]	Elser JJ, Bracken MES, Cleland EE, Gruner DS, Harpole WS et al. (2007) Global analysis of nitrogen and phosphorus limitation of primary producers in freshwater, marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Ecol Lett 10: 1135-1142. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2007.01113.x. PubMed: 17922835.
[78]	Kiffney PM, Richardson JS, Bull JP (2003) Responses of periphyton and insects to experimental manipulation of riparian buffer width along forest streams. Journal of Applied Ecology 40: 1060-1076. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2003.00855.x.
[79]	Kiffney PM, Richardson JS, Bull JP (2004) Establishing light as a causal mechanism structuring stream communities in response to experimental manipulation of riparian buffer width. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 23: 542-555. doi:10.1899/0887-3593(2004)023.
[80]	Wallace JB, Eggert SL, Meyer JL, Webster JR (1997) Multiple trophic levels of a forest stream linked to terrestrial litter inputs. Science 277: 102-104. doi:10.1126/science.277.5322.102.
[81]	Chizinski CJ, Vondracek B, Blinn CR, Newman RM, Atuke DM et al. (2010) The influence of partial timber harvesting in riparian buffers on macroinvertebrate and fish communities in small streams in Minnesota, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 259: 1946-1958. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2010.02.006.
[82]	Hemstad NA, Merten EC, Newman RM (2008) Effects of riparian forest thinning by two types of mechanical harvest on stream fish and habitat in northern Minnesota. Canadian Journal Forest Research-Revue Canadienne de Recherche Forestiere 38: 247-256. doi:10.1139/X07-157.
[83]	Hubbart JA, Link TE, Gravelle JA, Elliot WJ (2007) Timber harvest impacts on water yield in the continental/maritime hydroclimatic region of the United States. Forest Science 53: 169-180.
[84]	Beschta RL, Bilby RE, Brown GW, Holtby LB, Hofstra TD (1987) Stream temperature and aquatic habitat: fisheries and forestry interactions. In: EO SaloT.W. Cundy. Streamside Management: Forestry and Fishery Interactions, Contribution 57. Seattle, WA: Univ. of Wash., Inst. of Forest Res . pp. 191-232.
[85]	Moore RD, Spittlehouse DL, Story A (2005) Riparian microclimate and stream temperature response to forest harvesting: A review. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 41: 813-834. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.2005.tb04465.x.
[86]	Bourque CPA, Pomeroy JH (2001) Effects of forest harvesting on summer stream temperatures in New Brunswick, Canada: an inter-catchment, multiple-year comparison. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 5: 599-613. doi:10.5194/hess-5-599-2001. Available online at: doi:10.5194/hess-5-599-2001.
[87]	Wilkerson E, Hagan JM, Siegel D, Whitman AA (2006) The effectiveness of different buffer widths for protecting headwater stream temperature in Maine. Forest Science 52: 221-231.
[88]	Rempel RS, Carter JCH (1986) An experimental-study on the effect of elevated-temperature on the heterotrophic and autotrophic food resources of aquatic insects in a forested stream. Canadian Journal Zoology-Revue Canadienne de Zoologie 64: 2457-2466. doi:10.1139/z86-366.
[89]	Barton DR, Taylor WD, Biette RM (1985) Dimensions of riparian buffer strips required to maintain trout habitat in southern Ontario Canada streams. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 5: 364-378. doi:10.1577/1548-8659(1985)5.
[90]	Hokanson KEF, Kleiner CF, Thorslund TW (1977) Effects of constant temperatures and diel temperature-fluctuations on specific growth and mortality-rates and yield of juvenile rainbow-trout, salmo-gairdneri. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 34: 639-648. doi:10.1139/f77-100.
[91]	Carmona-Catot G, Moyle PB, Aparicio E, Crain PK, Thompson LC et al. (2010) Brook trout removal as a conservation tool to restore Eagle Lake rainbow trout. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 30: 1315-1323. doi:10.1577/M10-077.1.
[92]	Beche LA, McElravy EP, Resh VH (2006) Long-term seasonal variation in the biological traits of benthic-macroinvertebrates in two Mediterranean-climate streams in California, USA. Freshwater Biology 51: 56-75. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2427.2005.01473.x.
[93]	Beche LA, Resh VH (2007) Short-term climatic trends affect the temporal variability of macroinvertebrates in California 'Mediterranean' streams. Freshwater Biology 52: 2317-2339. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01859.x.
[94]	Mykra H, Heino J, Muotka T (2008) Concordance of stream macroinvertebrate assemblage classifications: How general are patterns from single-year surveys? Biological Conservation 141: 1218-1223. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2008.02.017.
[95]	Olden JD, Jensen OP, Vander Zanden MJ (2006) Implications of long-term dynamics of fish and zooplankton communities for among-lake comparisons. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 63: 1812-1821. doi:10.1139/f06-082.
[96]	Wiens JA (1981) Single-sample surveys of communities - are the revealed patterns real. American Naturalist 117: 90-98. doi:10.1086/283689.
[97]	Hawkins CP, Murphy ML, Anderson NH (1982) Effects of canopy, substrate composition, and gradient on the structure of macroinvertebrate communities in Cascade Range streams of Oregon. Ecology 63: 1840-1856. doi:10.2307/1940125.
[98]	Murphy ML, Hawkins CP, Anderson NH (1981) Effects of canopy modification and accumulated sediment on stream communities. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 110: 469-478. doi:10.1577/1548-8659(1981)110.
[99]	Quinn JM, Boothroyd IKG, Smith BJ (2004) Riparian buffers mitigate effects of pine plantation logging on New Zealand streams 2. Invertebrate communities. Forest Ecology and Management 191: 129-146. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2003.11.013.
[100]	Jost G, Weiler M, Gluns DR, Alila Y (2007) The influence of forest and topography on snow accumulation and melt at the watershed-scale. Journal of Hydrology 347: 101-115. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2007.09.006.
[101]	Storck P, Kern T, Bolton S (1999) Measurement of differences in snow accumulation, melt, and micrometeorology due to forest harvesting. Northwest Science 73: 87-101.
[102]	Winkler RD, Spittlehouse DL, Golding DL (2005) Measured differences in snow accumulation and melt among clearcut, juvenile, and mature forests in southern British Columbia. Hydrological Processes 19: 51-62. doi:10.1002/hyp.5757.
[103]	Pomeroy JW, Gray DM, Hedstrom NR, Janowicz JR (2002) Prediction of seasonal snow accumulation in cold climate forests. Hydrological Processes 16: 3543-3558. doi:10.1002/hyp.1228.
[104]	Kaufmann MR (1985) Annual transpiration in sub-alpine forests - large differences among 4 tree species. Forest Ecology and Management 13: 235-246. doi:10.1016/0378-1127(85)90037-4.
[105]	Dunford EG, Niederhof CH (1944) Influence of aspen, young lodgepole pine, and open grassland types upon factors affecting water yield. Jour Forest 42: 673-677.
[106]	Pomeroy JW, Parviainen J, Hedstrom N, Gray DM (1998) Coupled modelling of forest snow interception and sublimation. Hydrological Processes 12: 2317-2337. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(199812)12:15.
[107]	Jones BE, Lile DF, Tate KW (2011) Cattle selection for aspen and meadow vegetation: implications for restoration. Rangeland Ecology and Management 64: 625-632. doi:10.2111/REM-D-10-00089.1.

Full-Text

Contact Us

service@oalib.com

QQ:3279437679

WhatsApp +8615387084133