Linking Oceans: English, Economic Diversity and National Identity in Panama

This paper provides a brief overview of the history of English and Panamanian Creole English (PCE) in Panama. It then examines the evolution of Panamanian national identity and nationalism, and their relationship to and effect on English- and PCE-speaking Panamanians. Two groups are examined in detail: Afro-Panamanians in the province of Bocas del Toro, and Zonians, American expatriate canal workers. Also examined are the recent rise of tourism and residential tourism in Panama, and the connection of these economic activities with English. This paper finds that, while English is no longer rejected as un-Panamanian, Panama has yet to adequately replace old models that define national identity as monolingual. The wider embrace of English for economic and touristic purposes has not resulted in the removal of barriers between linguistically separated groups, nor has it fully alleviate the marginalization of PCE-speaking Panamanians.