History, philosophy, and science teaching: The new engagement

In 1986 a paper was published titled 'Science Education and Philosophy of Science: Twenty-five Years of Mutually Exclusive Development' (Duschl 1986). This was an account of the largely separate development of science education from the disciplines of history and philosophy of science. In the twenty years since the publication of Duschl’s paper there has been a significant new engagement between these fields. Both the theory, and importantly the curriculum and practice of science education, is becoming more informed by the history and philosophy of science (HPS). This engagement of HPS and science teaching is repeating the calls of early European Enlightenment figures such as Isaac Newton, John Locke and Joseph Priestley. The 18th century Enlightenment philosophers and educators (often they were the same figures) believed that a widespread understanding and appreciation of science would not only promote science, it would have positive flow-on effects for society and culture; if people thought and reasoned scientifically about politics, religion, ethics, law, history, social and cultural practices then much of the discord, persecution, wars and upheaval in society would be minimized. This was the Enlightenment hope: The spread of scientific thinking, or ‘scientific habits of mind’ as the AAAS has labeled it (AAAS 1989, chap.12), or ‘scientific temper’ as Nehru wrote into the Indian Constitution, would not only lead to knowledge of nature, but would improve social and cultural life. At the beginning of the 21 st century, as in the 18 th century, there are contemporary crises and discord in world affairs – as evidenced in the Middle-East wars; the economic crises; the clashes within Christianity and Islam between modernizers and fundamentalists; the clashes between religions in countries like Indonesia, Pakistan, India and Ireland; the political struggles about democracy and human rights in countries such as China, Zimbabwe and Egypt; struggles over women’s rights in countries such as Saudi Arabia, Iran and until recently European countries such as Spain and Ireland ; and intense struggles over free-speech in countries such as China and Russia. Aspects of all these clashes were to be found in 18 th century Europe, and the Enlightenment philosophers, inspired by the achievements of the 17 th century Scientific Revolution, thought that the new scientific method and outlook could be applied outside the laboratory to make headway in identifying and resolving the problems. Most of the Enlightenment philosophers strove for an open, critical, democratic society as