OALib Journal期刊
ISSN: 2333-9721
费用：99美元

投递稿件

查看量	下载量

相关文章
更多...

Biology 2013

PRDM Proteins: Molecular Mechanisms in Signal Transduction and Transcriptional Regulation

DOI: 10.3390/biology2010107

Erika Di Zazzo,Caterina De Rosa,Ciro Abbondanza,Bruno Moncharmont

Keywords: PRDM gene family, signal transduction, transcriptional regulation

Full-Text Cite this paper Add to My Lib

Abstract:

PRDM (PRDI-BF1 and RIZ homology domain containing) protein family members are characterized by the presence of a PR domain and a variable number of Zn-finger repeats. Experimental evidence has shown that the PRDM proteins play an important role in gene expression regulation, modifying the chromatin structure either directly, through the intrinsic methyltransferase activity, or indirectly through the recruitment of chromatin remodeling complexes. PRDM proteins have a dual action: they mediate the effect induced by different cell signals like steroid hormones and control the expression of growth factors. PRDM proteins therefore have a pivotal role in the transduction of signals that control cell proliferation and differentiation and consequently neoplastic transformation. In this review, we describe pathways in which PRDM proteins are involved and the molecular mechanism of their transcriptional regulation.

References

[1]	Xiao, B.; Wilson, J.R.; Gamblin, S.J. SET domains and histone methylation. Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol. 2003, 13, 699–705, doi:10.1016/j.sbi.2003.10.003.
[2]	Fumasoni, I.; Meani, N.; Rambaldi, D.; Scafetta, G.; Alcalay, M.; Ciccarelli, F. Family expansion and gene rearrangements contributed to the functional specialization of PRDM genes in vertebrates. BMC Evol. Biol. 2007, 7, 187.
[3]	Fog, C.K.; Galli, G.G.; Lund, A.H. PRDM proteins: Important players in differentiation and disease. BioEssays 2011, 34, 50–60.
[4]	Gyory, I.; Fejer, G.; Ghosh, N.; Seto, E.; Wright, K.L. Identification of a functionally impaired positive regulatory domain I binding factor 1 transcription repressor in myeloma cell lines. J. Immunol. 2003, 170, 3125–3133.
[5]	Hirai, H. The transcription factor Evi-1. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 1999, 31, 1367–1371, doi:10.1016/S1357-2725(99)00064-3.
[6]	Liu, L.; Shao, G.; Steele-Perkins, G.; Huang, S. The retinoblastoma interacting zinc finger gene RIZ produces a PR domain-lacking product through an internal promoter. J. Biol. Chem. 1997, 272, 2984–2991, doi:10.1074/jbc.272.5.2984.
[7]	Lahortiga, I.; Agirre, X.; Belloni, E.; Vazquez, I.; Larrayoz, M.J.; Gasparini, P.; Lo Coco, F.; Pelicci, P.G.; Calasanz, M.J.; Odero, M.D. Molecular characterization of a t(1;3)(p36;q21) in a patient with MDS. MEL1 is widely expressed in normal tissues, including bone marrow, and it is not overexpressed in the t(1;3) cells. Oncogene 2004, 23, 311–316.
[8]	Hayashi, K.; Yoshida, K.; Matsui, Y. A histone H3 methyltransferase controls epigenetic events required for meiotic prophase. Nature 2005, 438, 374–378, doi:10.1038/nature04112.
[9]	Wu, Y.; Ferguson Iii, J.E.; Wang, H.; Kelley, R.; Ren, R.; McDonough, H.; Meeker, J.; Charles, P.C.; Wang, H.; Patterson, C. PRDM6 is enriched in vascular precursors during development and inhibits endothelial cell proliferation, survival, and differentiation. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 2008, 44, 47–58, doi:10.1016/j.yjmcc.2007.06.008.
[10]	Hohenauer, T.; Moore, A.W. The Prdm family: Expanding roles in stem cells and development. Development 2012, 139, 2267–2282.
[11]	Turner, C.A., Jr.; Mack, D.H.; Davis, M.M. Blimp-1, a novel zinc finger-containing protein that can drive the maturation of B lymphocytes into immunoglobulin-secreting cells. Cell 1994, 77, 297–306, doi:10.1016/0092-8674(94)90321-2.
[12]	Mochizuki, N.; Shimizu, S.; Nagasawa, T.; Tanaka, H.; Taniwaki, M.; Yokota, J.; Morishita, K. A novel gene, MEL1, mapped to 1p36.3 is highly homologous to the MDS1/EVI1 gene and is transcriptionally activated in t(1;3)(p36;q21)-positive leukemia cells. Blood 2000, 96, 3209–3214.
[13]	Nishikata, I.; Sasaki, H.; Iga, M.; Tateno, Y.; Imayoshi, S.; Asou, N.; Nakamura, T.; Morishita, K. A novel EVI1 gene family, MEL1, lacking a PR domain (MEL1S) is expressed mainly in t(1;3)(p36;q21)-positive AML and blocks G-CSF-induced myeloid differentiation. Blood 2003, 102, 3323–3332, doi:10.1182/blood-2002-12-3944.
[14]	Morgan, M.A.J.; Mould, A.W.; Li, L.; Robertson, E.J.; Bikoff, E.K. Alternative splicing regulates Prdm1/Blimp-1 DNA binding activities and co-repressor interactions. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2012, 32, 3403–3413.
[15]	Wieser, R. The oncogene and developmental regulator EVI1: Expression, biochemical properties, and biological functions. Gene 2007, 396, 346–357, doi:10.1016/j.gene.2007.04.012.
[16]	Morishita, K.; Parganas, E.; William, C.L.; Whittaker, M.H.; Drabkin, H.; Oval, J.; Taetle, R.; Valentine, M.B.; Ihle, J.N. Activation of EVI1 gene expression in human acute myelogenous leukemias by translocations spanning 300–400 kilobases on chromosome band 3q26. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1992, 89, 3937–3941.
[17]	Fears, S.; Mathieu, C.; Zeleznik-Le, N.; Huang, S.; Rowley, J.D.; Nucifora, G. Intergenic splicing of MDS1 and EVI1 occurs in normal tissues as well as in myeloid leukemia and produces a new member of the PR domain family. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1996, 93, 1642–1647, doi:10.1073/pnas.93.4.1642.
[18]	Siegel, D.A.; Huang, M.K.; Becker, S.F. Ectopic dendrite initiation: CNS pathogenesis as a model of CNS development. Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. 2002, 20, 373–389, doi:10.1016/S0736-5748(02)00055-2.
[19]	UniProt. Available online: http://www.uniprot.org/ (accessed on 05 October 2012).
[20]	National Center for Biotechnology Information Protein Database. Available online: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/protein/ (accessed on 05 October 2012).
[21]	Izutsu, K.; Kurokawa, M.; Imai, Y.; Maki, K.; Mitani, K.; Hirai, H. The corepressor CtBP interacts with Evi-1 to repress transforming growth factor-β signaling. Blood 2001, 97, 2815–2822.
[22]	Davis, C.A.; Haberland, M.; Arnold, M.A.; Sutherland, L.B.; McDonald, O.G.; Richardson, J.A.; Childs, G.; Harris, S.; Owens, G.K.; Olson, E.N. PRISM/PRDM6, a Transcriptional Repressor That Promotes the Proliferative Gene Program in Smooth Muscle Cells. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2006, 26, 2626–2636, doi:10.1128/MCB.26.7.2626-2636.2006.
[23]	Kajimura, S.; Seale, P.; Tomaru, T.; Erdjument-Bromage, H.; Cooper, M.P.; Ruas, J.L.; Chin, S.; Tempst, P.; Lazar, M.A.; Spiegelman, B.M. Regulation of the brown and white fat gene programs through a PRDM16/CtBP transcriptional complex. Genes Dev. 2008, 22, 1397–1409, doi:10.1101/gad.1666108.
[24]	Yu, J.; Angelin-Duclos, C.; Greenwood, J.; Liao, J.; Calame, K. Transcriptional Repression by Blimp-1 (PRDI-BF1) Involves Recruitment of Histone Deacetylase. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2000, 20, 2592–2603, doi:10.1128/MCB.20.7.2592-2603.2000.
[25]	Kim, K.C.; Geng, L.; Huang, S. Inactivation of a histone methyltransferase by mutations in human cancers. Cancer Res. 2003, 63, 7619–7623.
[26]	Ancelin, K.; Lange, U.C.; Hajkova, P.; Schneider, R.; Bannister, A.J.; Kouzarides, T.; Surani, M.A. Blimp1 associates with Prmt5 and directs histone arginine methylation in mouse germ cells. Nat. Cell Biol. 2006, 8, 623–630, doi:10.1038/ncb1413.
[27]	Gyory, I.; Wu, J.; Fejer, G.; Seto, E.; Wright, K.L. PRDI-BF1 recruits the histone H3 methyltransferase G9a in transcriptional silencing. Nat. Immunol. 2004, 5, 299–308.
[28]	Aranda, A.; Pascual, A. Nuclear Hormone Receptors and Gene Expression. Physiol. Rev. 2001, 81, 1269–1304.
[29]	Medici, N.; Abbondanza, C.; Nigro, V.; Rossi, V.; Piluso, G.; Belsito, A.; Gallo, L.; Roscigno, A.; Bontempo, P.; Puca, A.A.; et al. Identification of a DNA binding protein cooperating with estrogen receptor as RIZ (retinoblastoma interacting zinc finger protein). Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1999, 264, 983–989, doi:10.1006/bbrc.1999.1604.
[30]	Abbondanza, C.; Medici, N.; Nigro, V.; Rossi, V.; Gallo, L.; Piluso, G.; Belsito, A.; Roscigno, A.; Bontempo, P.; Puca, A.A.; et al. The retinoblastoma-interacting zinc-finger protein RIZ is a downstream effector of estrogen action. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2000, 97, 3130–3135.
[31]	Gazzerro, P.; Abbondanza, C.; D’Arcangelo, A.; Rossi, M.; Medici, N.; Moncharmont, B.; Puca, G.A. Modulation of RIZ gene expression is associated to estradiol control of MCF-7 breast cancer cell proliferation. Exp. Cell Res. 2006, 312, 340–349.
[32]	Muraosa, Y.; Takahashi, K.; Yoshizawa, M.; Shibahara, S. cDNA cloning of a novel protein containing two zinc-finger domains that may function as a transcription factor for the human heme-oxygenase-1 gene. Eur. J. Biochem. 1996, 235, 471–479.
[33]	Xie, M.; Shao, G.; Buyse, I.; Huang, S. Transcriptional repression mediated by the PR domain zinc finger gene RIZ. J. Biol. Chem. 1997, 272, 26360–26366.
[34]	Carling, T.; Kim, K.-C.; Yang, X.-H.; Gu, J.; Zhang, X.-K.; Huang, S. A Histone Methyltransferase Is Required for Maximal Response to Female Sex Hormones. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2004, 24, 7032–7042, doi:10.1128/MCB.24.16.7032-7042.2004.
[35]	Garcia-Bassets, I.; Kwon, Y.S.; Telese, F.; Prefontaine, G.G.; Hutt, K.R.; Cheng, C.S.; Ju, B.G.; Ohgi, K.A.; Wang, J.; Escoubet-Lozach, L.; et al. Histone methylation-dependent mechanisms impose ligand dependency for gene activation by nuclear receptors. Cell 2007, 128, 505–518, doi:10.1016/j.cell.2006.12.038.
[36]	Metzger, E.; Wissmann, M.; Yin, N.; Muller, J.M.; Schneider, R.; Peters, A.H.F.M.; Gunther, T.; Buettner, R.; Schule, R. LSD1 demethylates repressive histone marks to promote androgen-receptor-dependent transcription. Nature 2005, 437, 436–439.
[37]	Ju, B.G.; Lunyak, V.V.; Perissi, V.; Garcia-Bassets, I.; Rose, D.W.; Glass, C.K.; Rosenfeld, M.G. A topoisomerase IIbeta-mediated dsDNA break required for regulated transcription. Science 2006, 312, 1798–1802.
[38]	Perillo, B.; Ombra, M.N.; Bertoni, A.; Cuozzo, C.; Sacchetti, S.; Sasso, A.; Chiariotti, L.; Malorni, A.; Abbondanza, C.; Avvedimento, E.V. DNA Oxidation as Triggered by H3K9me2 Demethylation Drives Estrogen-Induced Gene Expression. Science 2008, 319, 202–206, doi:10.1126/science.1147674.
[39]	Steele-Perkins, G.; Fang, W.; Yang, X.H.; van Gele, M.; Carling, T.; Gu, J.; Buyse, I.M.; Fletcher, J.A.; Liu, J.; Bronson, R.; et al. Tumor formation and inactivation of RIZ1, an Rb-binding member of a nuclear protein-methyltransferase superfamily. Genes Dev. 2001, 15, 2250–2262, doi:10.1101/gad.870101.
[40]	Buyse, I.M.; Shao, G.; Huang, S. The retinoblastoma protein binds to RIZ, a zinc-finger protein that shares an epitope with the adenovirus E1A protein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1995, 92, 4467–4471.
[41]	Shapiro, V.S.; Lee, P.; Winoto, A. Identification and cloning of the G3B cDNA encoding a 3' segment of a protein binding to GATA-3. Gene 1995, 163, 329–330, doi:10.1016/0378-1119(95)00420-B.
[42]	Zhu, J.; Yamane, H.; Cote-Sierra, J.; Guo, L.; Paul, W.E. GATA-3 promotes Th2 responses through three different mechanisms: induction of Th2 cytokine production, selective growth of Th2 cells and inhibition of Th1 cell-specific factors. Cell Res. 2006, 16, 3–10, doi:10.1038/sj.cr.7310002.
[43]	Abbondanza, C.; de Rosa, C.; D’Arcangelo, A.; Pacifico, M.; Spizuoco, C.; Piluso, G.; di Zazzo, E.; Gazzerro, P.; Medici, N.; Moncharmont, B.; et al. Identification of a functional estrogen-responsive enhancer element in the promoter 2 of PRDM2 gene in breast cancer cell lines. J. Cell. Physiol. 2012, 227, 964–975, doi:10.1002/jcp.22803.
[44]	O’Sullivan, J.M.; Tan-Wong, S.M.; Morillon, A.; Lee, B.; Coles, J.; Mellor, J.; Proudfoot, N.J. Gene loops juxtapose promoters and terminators in yeast. Nat. Genet. 2004, 36, 1014–1018, doi:10.1038/ng1411.
[45]	Ansari, A.; Hampsey, M. A role for the CPF 3'-end processing machinery in RNAP II-dependent gene looping. Genes Dev. 2005, 19, 2969–2978, doi:10.1101/gad.1362305.
[46]	Bentley, D.L. Rules of engagement: Co-transcriptional recruitment of pre-mRNA processing factors. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 2005, 17, 251–256, doi:10.1016/j.ceb.2005.04.006.
[47]	Abbondanza, C.; de Rosa, C.; Ombra, M.N.; Aceto, F.; Medici, N.; Altucci, L.; Moncharmont, B.; Puca, G.A.; Porcellini, A.; Avvedimento, E.V.; et al. Highlighting chromosome loops in DNA-picked chromatin (DPC). Epigenetics 2011, 6, 979–986, doi:10.4161/epi.6.8.16060.
[48]	Abbondanza, C.; de Nigris, F.; de Rosa, C.; Rossiello, R.; Puca, G.A.; Napoli, C. Silencing of YY1 downregulates RIZ1 promoter in human osteosarcoma. Oncol. Res. 2008, 17, 33–41.
[49]	Rossi, V.; Staibano, S.; Pasquali, D.; de Rosa, C.; Mascolo, M.; Bellastella, G.; Visconti, D.; de Bellis, A.; Moncharmont, B.; de Rosa, G.; et al. Expression of RIZ1 protein (Retinoblastoma-interacting zinc-finger protein 1) in prostate cancer epithelial cells changes with cancer grade progression and is modulated in vitro by DHT and E2. J. Cell. Physiol. 2009, 221, 771–777, doi:10.1002/jcp.21920.
[50]	TRANSFAC？ 7.0 Public. 2005. Available online: http://www.gene-regulation.com/pub/databases.html/ (accessed on 17 January 2009).
[51]	Gazzerro, P.; Bontempo, P.; Schiavone, E.M.; Abbondanza, C.; Moncharmont, B.; Armetta, I.; Medici, N.; de Simone, M.; Nola, E.; Puca, G.A.; et al. Differentiation of myeloid cell lines correlates with a selective expression of RIZ protein. Mol. Med. 2001, 7, 552–560.
[52]	Seale, P.; Bjork, B.; Yang, W.; Kajimura, S.; Chin, S.; Kuang, S.; Scime, A.; Devarakonda, S.; Conroe, H.M.; Erdjument-Bromage, H.; et al. PRDM16 controls a brown fat/skeletal muscle switch. Nature 2008, 454, 961–968.
[53]	Eom, G.H.; Kim, K.; Kim, S.-M.; Kee, H.J.; Kim, J.-Y.; Jin, H.M.; Kim, J.-R.; Kim, J.H.; Choe, N.; Kim, K.-B.; et al. Histone methyltransferase PRDM8 regulates mouse testis steroidogenesis. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2009, 388, 131–136, doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.07.134.
[54]	Pastural, E.; Takahashi, N.; Dong, W.F.; Bainbridge, M.; Hull, A.; Pearson, D.; Huang, S.; Lowsky, R.; DeCoteau, J.F.; Geyer, C.R. RIZ1 repression is associated with insulin-like growth factor-1 signaling activation in chronic myeloid leukemia cell lines. Oncogene 2006, 26, 1586–1594.
[55]	Thoenen, H. Neurotrophins and Neuronal Plasticity. Science 1995, 270, 593–598.
[56]	Lewin, G.R.; Barde, Y.-A. Physiology of the Neurotrophins. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 1996, 19, 289–317, doi:10.1146/annurev.ne.19.030196.001445.
[57]	Chittka, A.; Chao, M.V. Identification of a zinc finger protein whose subcellular distribution is regulated by serum and nerve growth factor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1999, 96, 10705–10710, doi:10.1073/pnas.96.19.10705.
[58]	Chittka, A.; Arevalo, J.C.; Rodriguez-Guzman, M.; Perez, P.; Chao, M.V.; Sendtner, M. The p75NTR-interacting protein SC1 inhibits cell cycle progression by transcriptional repression of cyclin E. J. Cell Biol. 2004, 164, 985–996, doi:10.1083/jcb.200301106.
[59]	Chittka, A.; Nitarska, J.; Grazini, U.; Richardson, W.D. Transcription Factor Positive Regulatory Domain 4 (PRDM4) recruits Protein Arginine Methyltransferase 5 (PRMT5) to mediate histone arginine methylation and control neural stem cell proliferation and differentiation. J. Biol. Chem. 2012, 287, 42995–43006, doi:10.1074/jbc.M112.392746.
[60]	Sato, N.; Meijer, L.; Skaltsounis, L.; Greengard, P.; Brivanlou, A.H. Maintenance of pluripotency in human and mouse embryonic stem cells through activation of Wnt signaling by a pharmacological GSK-3-specific inhibitor. Nat. Med. 2004, 10, 55–63, doi:10.1038/nm979.
[61]	Watanabe, S.; Umehara, H.; Murayama, K.; Okabe, M.; Kimura, T.; Nakano, T. Activation of Akt signaling is sufficient to maintain pluripotency in mouse and primate embryonic stem cells. Oncogene 2006, 25, 2697–2707, doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1209307.
[62]	Storm, M.P.; Bone, H.K.; Beck, C.G.; Bourillot, P.-Y.; Schreiber, V.; Damiano, T.; Nelson, A.; Savatier, P.; Welham, M.J. Regulation of Nanog Expression by Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase-dependent Signaling in Murine Embryonic Stem Cells. J. Biol. Chem. 2007, 282, 6265–6273.
[63]	Lee, M.Y.; Lim, H.W.; Lee, S.H.; Han, H.J. Smad, PI3K/Akt, and Wnt-Dependent Signaling Pathways Are Involved in BMP-4-Induced ESC Self-Renewal. Stem Cells 2009, 27, 1858–1868, doi:10.1002/stem.124.
[64]	Chia, N.-Y.; Chan, Y.-S.; Feng, B.; Lu, X.; Orlov, Y.L.; Moreau, D.; Kumar, P.; Yang, L.; Jiang, J.; Lau, M.-S.; et al. A genome-wide RNAi screen reveals determinants of human embryonic stem cell identity. Nature 2010, 468, 316–320.
[65]	Bikoff, E.K.; Robertson, E.J. One PRDM is not enough for germ cell development. Nat. Genet. 2008, 40, 934, doi:10.1038/ng0808-934.
[66]	Fujiwara, T.; Dunn, N.R.; Hogan, B.L.M. Bone morphogenetic protein 4 in the extraembryonic mesoderm is required for allantois development and the localization and survival of primordial germ cells in the mouse. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2001, 98, 13739–13744.
[67]	Kimura, T.; Nakamura, T.; Murayama, K.; Umehara, H.; Yamano, N.; Watanabe, S.; Taketo, M.M.; Nakano, T. The stabilization of β-catenin leads to impaired primordial germ cell development via aberrant cell cycle progression. Dev. Biol. 2006, 300, 545–553, doi:10.1016/j.ydbio.2006.06.038.
[68]	Kemp, C.; Willems, E.; Abdo, S.; Lambiv, L.; Leyns, L. Expression of all Wnt genes and their secreted antagonists during mouse blastocyst and postimplantation development. Dev. Dyn. 2005, 233, 1064–1075, doi:10.1002/dvdy.20408.
[69]	Ohinata, Y.; Ohta, H.; Shigeta, M.; Yamanaka, K.; Wakayama, T.; Saitou, M. A Signaling Principle for the Specification of the Germ Cell Lineage in Mice. Cell 2009, 137, 571–584, doi:10.1016/j.cell.2009.03.014.
[70]	Arnold, S.J.; Maretto, S.; Islam, A.; Bikoff, E.K.; Robertson, E.J. Dose-dependent Smad1, Smad5 and Smad8 signaling in the early mouse embryo. Dev. Biol. 2006, 296, 104–118, doi:10.1016/j.ydbio.2006.04.442.
[71]	Ohinata, Y.; Payer, B.; O’Carroll, D.; Ancelin, K.; Ono, Y.; Sano, M.; Barton, S.C.; Obukhanych, T.; Nussenzweig, M.; Tarakhovsky, A.; et al. Blimp1 is a critical determinant of the germ cell lineage in mice. Nature 2005, 436, 207–213.
[72]	Surani, M.A.; Hayashi, K.; Hajkova, P. Genetic and Epigenetic Regulators of Pluripotency. Cell 2007, 128, 747–762, doi:10.1016/j.cell.2007.02.010.
[73]	Bedford, M.T.; Richard, S. Arginine Methylation: An Emerging Regulatorof Protein Function. Mol. Cell 2005, 18, 263–272, doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2005.04.003.
[74]	Tee, W.W.; Pardo, M.; Theunissen, T.W.; Yu, L.; Choudhary, J.S.; Hajkova, P.; Surani, M.A. Prmt5 is essential for early mouse development and acts in the cytoplasm to maintain ES cell pluripotency. Genes Dev. 2010, 24, 2772–2777, doi:10.1101/gad.606110.
[75]	Seki, Y.; Yamaji, M.; Yabuta, Y.; Sano, M.; Shigeta, M.; Matsui, Y.; Saga, Y.; Tachibana, M.; Shinkai, Y.; Saitou, M. Cellular dynamics associated with the genome-wide epigenetic reprogramming in migrating primordial germ cells in mice. Development 2007, 134, 2627–2638, doi:10.1242/dev.005611.
[76]	Saitou, M.; Barton, S.C.; Surani, M.A. A molecular programme for the specification of germ cell fate in mice. Nature 2002, 418, 293–300, doi:10.1038/nature00927.
[77]	Yabuta, Y.; Kurimoto, K.; Ohinata, Y.; Seki, Y.; Saitou, M. Gene Expression Dynamics During Germline Specification in Mice Identified by Quantitative Single-Cell Gene Expression Profiling. Biol. Reprod. 2006, 75, 705–716.
[78]	Clark, A.T.; Bodnar, M.S.; Fox, M.; Rodriquez, R.T.; Abeyta, M.J.; Firpo, M.T.; Pera, R.A.R. Spontaneous differentiation of germ cells from human embryonic stem cells in vitro. Hum. Mol. Genet. 2004, 13, 727–739, doi:10.1093/hmg/ddh088.
[79]	Toyooka, Y.; Tsunekawa, N.; Akasu, R.; Noce, T. Embryonic stem cells can form germ cells in vitro. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003, 100, 11457–11462, doi:10.1073/pnas.1932826100.
[80]	Yamaji, M.; Seki, Y.; Kurimoto, K.; Yabuta, Y.; Yuasa, M.; Shigeta, M.; Yamanaka, K.; Ohinata, Y.; Saitou, M. Critical function of Prdm14 for the establishment of the germ cell lineage in mice. Nat. Genet. 2008, 40, 1016–1022.
[81]	Kurimoto, K.; Yamaji, M.; Seki, Y.; Saitou, M. Specification of the germ cell lineage in mice: A process orchestrated by the PR-domain proteins, Blimp1 and Prdm14. Cell Cycle 2008, 7, 3514–3518, doi:10.4161/cc.7.22.6979.
[82]	Bao, S.; Leitch, H.G.; Gillich, A.; Nichols, J.; Tang, F.; Kim, S.; Lee, C.; Zwaka, T.; Li, X.; Surani, M.A. The Germ Cell Determinant Blimp1 Is Not Required for Derivation of Pluripotent Stem Cells. Cell Stem Cell 2012, 11, 110–117, doi:10.1016/j.stem.2012.02.023.
[83]	Ying, Y.; Tao, Q. Epigenetic disruption of the WNT/beta-catenin signaling pathway in human cancers. Epigenetics 2009, 4, 307–312, doi:10.4161/epi.4.5.9371.
[84]	Shu, X.; Geng, H.; Li, L.; Ying, J.; Ma, C.; Wang, Y.; Poon, F.F.; Wang, X.; Ying, Y.; Yeo, W.; et al. The epigenetic modifier PRDM5 functions as a tumor suppressor through modulating WNT/β-catenin signaling and is frequently silenced in multiple tumors. PLoS One 2011, 6, e27346.
[85]	Nguyen, L.; Besson, A.; Roberts, J.M.; Guillemot, F. Coupling cell cycle exit, neuronal differentiation and migration in cortical neurogenesis. Cell Cycle 2006, 5, 2314–2318, doi:10.4161/cc.5.20.3381.
[86]	Shirasaki, R.; Pfaff, S.L. Transcriptional codes and the control of neuronal identity. .Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2002, 25, 251–281, doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142916.
[87]	Bertrand, N.; Castro, D.S.; Guillemot, F. Proneural genes and the specification of neural cell types. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2002, 3, 517, doi:10.1038/nrn874.
[88]	Ross, S.E.; Greenberg, M.E.; Stiles, C.D. Basic Helix-Loop-Helix Factors in Cortical Development. Neuron 2003, 39, 13–25, doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00365-9.
[89]	Bramblett, D.E.; Copeland, N.G.; Jenkins, N.A.; Tsai, M.-J. BHLHB4 Is a bHLH Transcriptional Regulator in Pancreas and Brain That Marks the Dimesencephalic Boundary. Genomics 2002, 79, 402, doi:10.1006/geno.2002.6708.
[90]	Joshi, P.S.; Molyneaux, B.J.; Feng, L.; Xie, X.; Macklis, J.D.; Gan, L. Bhlhb5 Regulates the Postmitotic Acquisition of Area Identities in Layers II-V of the Developing Neocortex. Neuron 2008, 60, 258, doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2008.08.006.
[91]	Ross, S.E.; Mardinly, A.R.; McCord, A.E.; Zurawski, J.; Cohen, S.; Jung, C.; Hu, L.; Mok, S.I.; Shah, A.; Savner, E.M.; et al. Loss of Inhibitory Interneurons in the Dorsal Spinal Cord and Elevated Itch in Bhlhb5 Mutant Mice. Neuron 2010, 65, 886–898, doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2010.02.025.
[92]	Ohtsuka, T.; Ishibashi, M.; Gradwohl, G.; Nakanishi, S.; Guillemot, F.; Kageyama, R. Hes1 and Hes5 as Notch effectors in mammalian neuronal differentiation. EMBO J. 1999, 18, 2196–2207, doi:10.1093/emboj/18.8.2196.
[93]	Nieto, M.; Schuurmans, C.; Britz, O.; Guillemot, F. Neural bHLH Genes Control the Neuronal versus Glial Fate Decision in Cortical Progenitors. Neuron 2001, 29, 401–413, doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(01)00214-8.
[94]	Endo, K.; Karim, M.R.; Taniguchi, H.; Krejci, A.; Kinameri, E.; Siebert, M.; Ito, K.; Bray, S.J.; Moore, A.W. Chromatin modification of Notch targets in olfactory receptor neuron diversification. Nat. Neurosci. 2011, 15, 224–233, doi:10.1038/nn.2998.
[95]	Kinameri, E.; Inoue, T.; Aruga, J.; Imayoshi, I.; Kageyama, R.; Shimogori, T.; Moore, A.W. Prdm Proto-Oncogene Transcription Factor Family Expression and Interaction with the Notch-Hes Pathway in Mouse Neurogenesis. PLoS One 2008, 3, e3859.
[96]	Ross, S.E.; McCord, A.E.; Jung, C.; Atan, D.; Mok, S.I.; Hemberg, M.; Kim, T.-K.; Salogiannis, J.; Hu, L.; Cohen, S.; et al. Bhlhb5 and Prdm8 Form a Repressor Complex Involved in Neuronal Circuit Assembly. Neuron 2012, 73, 292–303, doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.09.035.
[97]	Ito, Y.; Yeo, J.Y.; Chytil, A.; Han, J.; Bringas, P.; Nakajima, A.; Shuler, C.F.; Moses, H.L.; Chai, Y. Conditional inactivation of Tgfbr2 in cranial neural crest causes cleft palate and calvaria defects. Development 2003, 130, 5269–5280.
[98]	Pisano, M.M.; Mukhopadhyay, P.; Greene, R.M. Molecular fingerprinting of TGF？-treated embryonic maxillary mesenchymal cells. Orthodontics Craniofacial Res. 2003, 6, 194, doi:10.1034/j.1600-0544.2003.00264.x.
[99]	D’Angelo, M.; Greene, R.M. Transforming growth factor-beta modulation of glycosaminoglycan production by mesenchymal cells of the developing murine secondary palate. Dev. Biol. 1991, 145, 374–378, doi:10.1016/0012-1606(91)90136-Q.
[100]	Mukhopadhyay, P.; Greene, R.M.; Pisano, M.M. Expression profiling of transforming growth factor β superfamily genes in developing orofacial tissue. Birth Defects Res. Part A 2006, 76, 528–543, doi:10.1002/bdra.20276.
[101]	Warner, D.R.; Horn, K.H.; Mudd, L.; Webb, C.L.; Greene, R.M.; Pisano, M.M. PRDM16/MEL1: A novel Smad binding protein expressed in murine embryonic orofacial tissue. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2007, 1773, 814–820.
[102]	Alliston, T.; Ko, T.C.; Cao, Y.; Liang, Y.-Y.; Feng, X.-H.; Chang, C.; Derynck, R. Repression of Bone Morphogenetic Protein and Activin-inducible Transcription by Evi-1. J. Biol. Chem. 2005, 280, 24227–24237.
[103]	Bjork, B.C.; Turbe-Doan, A.; Prysak, M.; Herron, B.J.; Beier, D.R. Prdm16 is required for normal palatogenesis in mice. Hum. Mol. Genet. 2010, 19, 774–789.
[104]	Sato, T.; Goyama, S.; Nitta, E.; Takeshita, M.; Yoshimi, M.; Nakagawa, M.; Kawazu, M.; Ichikawa, M.; Kurokawa, M. Evi-1 promotes para-aortic splanchnopleural hematopoiesis through up-regulation of GATA-2 and repression of TGF-b signaling. Cancer Sci. 2008, 99, 1407–1413.
[105]	Takahata, M.; Inoue, Y.; Tsuda, H.; Imoto, I.; Koinuma, D.; Hayashi, M.; Ichikura, T.; Yamori, T.; Nagasaki, K.; Yoshida, M.; et al. SKI and MEL1 Cooperate to Inhibit Transforming Growth Factor-β Signal in Gastric Cancer Cells. J. Biol. Chem. 2009, 284, 3334–3344.
[106]	Jakobsen, L.P.; Borup, R.; Vestergaard, J.; Larsen, L.A.; Lage, K.; Maroun, L.L.; Kjaer, I.; Niemann, C.U.; Andersen, M.; Knudsen, M.A.; et al. Expression analyses of human cleft palate tissue suggest a role for osteopontin and immune related factors in palatal development. Exp. Mol. Med. 2009, 41, 77–85, doi:10.3858/emm.2009.41.2.010.
[107]	Warner, D.R.; Mukhopadhyay, P.; Webb, C.L.; Greene, R.M.; Pisano, M.M. Chromatin immunoprecipitation-promoter microarray identification of genes regulated by PRDM16 in murine embryonic palate mesenchymal cells. Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood) 2012, 237, 387–394, doi:10.1258/ebm.2012.011258.
[108]	Ren, B.; Chee, K.J.; Kim, T.H.; Maniatis, T. PRDI-BF1/Blimp-1 repression is mediated by corepressors of the Groucho family of proteins. Genes Dev. 1999, 13, 125–137, doi:10.1101/gad.13.1.125.
[109]	Diehl, S.A.; Schmidlin, H.; Nagasawa, M.; Blom, B.; Spits, H. IL-6 Triggers IL-21 production by human CD4+ T cells to drive STAT3-dependent plasma cell differentiation in B cells. Immunol. Cell Biol. 2012, 90, 208–211.
[110]	Kallies, A.; Hawkins, E.D.; Belz, G.T.; Metcalf, D.; Hommel, M.; Corcoran, L.M.; Hodgkin, P.D.; Nutt, S.L. Transcriptional repressor Blimp-1 is essential for T cell homeostasis and self-tolerance. Nat. Immunol. 2006, 7, 466–474.
[111]	Martins, G.A.; Cimmino, L.; Shapiro-Shelef, M.; Szabolcs, M.; Herron, A.; Magnusdottir, E.; Calame, K. Transcriptional repressor Blimp-1 regulates T cell homeostasis and function. Nat. Immunol. 2006, 7, 457–465, doi:10.1038/ni1320.
[112]	Gong, D.; Malek, T.R. Cytokine-Dependent Blimp-1 Expression in Activated T Cells Inhibits IL-2 Production. J. Immunol. 2007, 178, 242–252.
[113]	Wang, L.; van Panhuys, N.; Hu-Li, J.; Kim, S.; Le Gros, G.; Min, B. Blimp-1 Induced by IL-4 Plays a Critical Role in Suppressing IL-2 Production in Activated CD4 T Cells. J. Immunol. 2008, 181, 5249–5256.
[114]	Thiele, S.; Wittmann, J.; J？ck, H.-M.; Pahl, A. miR-9 enhances IL-2 production in activated human CD4+ T cells by repressing Blimp-1. Eur. J. Immunol. 2012, 42, 2100–2108, doi:10.1002/eji.201142203.
[115]	Yu, D.; Rao, S.; Tsai, L.M.; Lee, S.K.; He, Y.; Sutcliffe, E.L.; Srivastava, M.; Linterman, M.; Zheng, L.; Simpson, N.; et al. The Transcriptional Repressor Bcl-6 Directs T Follicular Helper Cell Lineage Commitment. Immunity 2009, 31, 457–468, doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2009.07.002.
[116]	Basso, K.; Dalla-Favera, R. BCL6: Master regulator of the germinal center reaction and key oncogene in B cell lymphomagenesis. Adv. Immunol. 2010, 105, 193–210, doi:10.1016/S0065-2776(10)05007-8.
[117]	Oestreich, K.J.; Huang, A.C.; Weinmann, A.S. The lineage-defining factors T-bet and Bcl-6 collaborate to regulate Th1 gene expression patterns. J. Exp. Med. 2011, 208, 1001–1013, doi:10.1084/jem.20102144.
[118]	Oestreich, K.J.; Mohn, S.E.; Weinmann, A.S. Molecular mechanisms that control the expression and activity of Bcl-6 in TH1 cells to regulate flexibility with a TFH-like gene profile. Nat. Immunol. 2012, 13, 405–411.
[119]	Cretney, E.; Xin, A.; Shi, W.; Minnich, M.; Masson, F.; Miasari, M.; Belz, G.T.; Smyth, G.K.; Busslinger, M.; Nutt, S.L.; et al. The transcription factors Blimp-1 and IRF4 jointly control the differentiation and function of effector regulatory T cells. Nat. Immunol. 2011, 12, 304–311.
[120]	Zheng, Y.; Josefowicz, S.Z.; Kas, A.; Chu, T.-T.; Gavin, M.A.; Rudensky, A.Y. Genome-wide analysis of Foxp3 target genes in developing and mature regulatory T cells. Nature 2007, 445, 936–940.
[121]	Zheng, Y.; Chaudhry, A.; Kas, A.; deRoos, P.; Kim, J.M.; Chu, T.-T.; Corcoran, L.; Treuting, P.; Klein, U.; Rudensky, A.Y. Regulatory T-cell suppressor program co-opts transcription factor IRF4 to control TH2 responses. Nature 2009, 458, 351–356.
[122]	Kwon, H.; Thierry-Mieg, D.; Thierry-Mieg, J.; Kim, H.-P.; Oh, J.; Tunyaplin, C.; Carotta, S.; Donovan, C.E.; Goldman, M.L.; Tailor, P.; et al. Analysis of Interleukin-21-Induced Prdm1 Gene Regulation Reveals Functional Cooperation of STAT3 and IRF4 Transcription Factors. Immunity 2009, 31, 941–952, doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2009.10.008.
[123]	Sciammas, R.; Shaffer, A.L.; Schatz, J.H.; Zhao, H.; Staudt, L.M.; Singh, H. Graded Expression of Interferon Regulatory Factor-4 Coordinates Isotype Switching with Plasma Cell Differentiation. Immunity 2006, 25, 225–236, doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2006.07.009.
[124]	Noman, A.S.M.; Koide, N.; Iftakhar-E-Khuda, I.; Dagvadorj, J.; Tumurkhuu, G.; Naiki, Y.; Komatsu, T.; Yoshida, T.; Yokochi, T. Retinoblastoma protein-interacting zinc finger 1, a tumor suppressor, augments lipopolysaccharide-induced proinflammatory cytokine production via enhancing nuclear factor-κB activation. Cell. Immunol. 2010, 264, 114–118, doi:10.1016/j.cellimm.2010.05.007.
[125]	Shadat, N.M.A.; Koide, N.; Khuda, I.I.E.; Dagvadorj, J.; Tumurkhuu, G.; Naiki, Y.; Komatsu, T.; Yoshida, T.; Yokochi, T. Retinoblastoma Protein-Interacting Zinc Finger 1 (RIZ1) Regulates the Proliferation of Monocytic Leukemia Cells via Activation of p53. Cancer Invest. 2010, 28, 806–812, doi:10.3109/07357907.2010.494323.
[126]	Duan, Z.; Horwitz, M. Gfi-1 Oncoproteins in Hematopoiesis. Hematology 2003, 8, 339–344, doi:10.1080/10245330310001612116.
[127]	Hock, H.; Hamblen, M.J.; Rooke, H.M.; Traver, D.; Bronson, R.T.; Cameron, S.; Orkin, S.H. Intrinsic Requirement for Zinc Finger Transcription Factor Gfi-1 in Neutrophil Differentiation. Immunity 2003, 18, 109–120, doi:10.1016/S1074-7613(02)00501-0.
[128]	Karsunky, H.; Zeng, H.; Schmidt, T.; Zevnik, B.; Kluge, R.; Schmid, K.W.; Duhrsen, U.; Moroy, T. Inflammatory reactions and severe neutropenia in mice lacking the transcriptional repressor Gfi1. Nat. Genet. 2002, 30, 295–300, doi:10.1038/ng831.
[129]	Person, R.E.; Li, F.-Q.; Duan, Z.; Benson, K.F.; Wechsler, J.; Papadaki, H.A.; Eliopoulos, G.; Kaufman, C.; Bertolone, S.J.; Nakamoto, B.; et al. Mutations in proto-oncogene GFI1 cause human neutropenia and target ELA2. Nat. Genet. 2003, 34, 308–312, doi:10.1038/ng1170.
[130]	Duan, Z.; Person, R.E.; Lee, H.-H.; Huang, S.; Donadieu, J.; Badolato, R.; Grimes, H.L.; Papayannopoulou, T.; Horwitz, M.S. Epigenetic Regulation of Protein-Coding and MicroRNA Genes by the Gfi1-Interacting Tumor Suppressor PRDM5. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2007, 27, 6889–6902.
[131]	Ségurel, L.; Leffler, E.M.; Przeworski, M. The Case of the Fickle Fingers: How the PRDM9 Zinc Finger Protein Specifies Meiotic Recombination Hotspots in Humans. PLoS Biol. 2011, 9, e1001211, doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001211.
[132]	Loyola, A.; Bonaldi, T.; Roche, D.; Imhof, A.; Almouzni, G. PTMs on H3 Variants before Chromatin Assembly Potentiate Their Final Epigenetic State. Mol. Cell 2006, 24, 309–316, doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2006.08.019.
[133]	Pinheiro, I.; Margueron, R.; Shukeir, N.; Eisold, M.; Fritzsch, C.; Richter, F.M.; Mittler, G.; Genoud, C.; Goyama, S.; Kurokawa, M.; et al. Prdm3 and Prdm16 are H3K9me1 Methyltransferases Required for Mammalian Heterochromatin Integrity. Cell 2012, 150, 948–960, doi:10.1016/j.cell.2012.06.048.
[134]	Olsen, B.R.; Reginato, A.M.; Wang, W. Bone development. Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 2000, 16, 191–220, doi:10.1146/annurev.cellbio.16.1.191.
[135]	Galli, G.G.; Honnens de Lichtenberg, K.; Carrara, M.; Hans, W.; Wuelling, M.; Mentz, B.; Multhaupt, H.A.; Fog, C.K.; Jensen, K.T.; Rappsilber, J.; et al. Prdm5 Regulates Collagen Gene Transcription by Association with RNA Polymerase II in Developing Bone. PLoS Genet. 2012, 8, e1002711, doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002711.
[136]	Shing, D.C.; Trubia, M.; Marchesi, F.; Radaelli, E.; Belloni, E.; Tapinassi, C.; Scanziani, E.; Mecucci, C.; Crescenzi, B.; Lahortiga, I.; et al. Overexpression of sPRDM16 coupled with loss of p53 induces myeloid leukemias in mice. J. Clin. Invest. 2007, 117, 3696–3707.

Full-Text

Contact Us

service@oalib.com

QQ:3279437679

WhatsApp +8615387084133