The most familiar icy environments, seasonal lake and stream ice, have received little microbiological study. Bacteria and Eukarya dominated the microbial assemblage within the seasonal ice of Miquelon Lake, a shallow saline lake in Alberta, Canada. The bacterial assemblages were moderately diverse and did not vary with either ice depth or time. The closest relatives of the bacterial sequences from the ice included Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, Verrucomicrobia, and Cyanobacteria. The eukaryotic assemblages were less conserved and had very low diversity. Green algae relatives dominated the eukaryotic gene sequences; however, a copepod and cercozoan were also identified, possibly indicating the presence of complete microbial loop. The persistence of a chlorophyll a peak at 25–30 cm below the ice surface, despite ice migration and brine flushing, indicated possible biological activity within the ice. This is the first study of the composition, diversity, and stability of seasonal lake ice.
Dieser, M.; Nocker, A.; Priscu, J.C.; Foreman, C.M. Viable microbes in ice: Application of molecular assays to McMurdo Dry Valley lake ice communities. Antarct. Sci. 2010, 22, 470–476, doi:10.1017/S0954102010000404.
[3]
Foreman, C.M.; Dieser, M.; Greenwood, M.; Cory, R.M.; Laybourn-Parry, J.; Lisle, J.T.; Jaros, C.; Miller, P.L.; Chin, Y.P.; Mcknight, D.M. When a habitat freezes solid: Microorganisms over-winter within the ice column of a coastal Antarctic lake. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 2011, 76, 401–412.
[4]
Priscu, J.C.; Fritsen, C.H.; Adams, E.E.; Giovannoni, S.J.; Paerl, H.W.; McKay, C.P.; Doran, P.T.; Gordon, D.A.; Lanoil, B.D.; Pinckney, J.L. Perennial antarctic lake ice: An oasis for life in a polar desert. Science 1998, 280, 2095–2098, doi:10.1126/science.280.5372.2095.
[5]
Bowers, J.A.; Cooper, W.E.; Hall, D.J. Midwater and epibenthic behaviors of Mysis relicta Loven: Observations from the Johnson-Sea-Link II submersible in Lake Superior and from a remotely operated vehicle in northern Lake Michigan. J. Plankton Res. 1990, 12, 1279–1286, doi:10.1093/plankt/12.6.1279.
[6]
Vanderploeg, H.A.; Bolsenga, S.J.; Fahnenstiel, G.L.; Liebig, J.R.; Gardner, W.S. Plankton ecology in an ice-covered bay of Lake Michigan: Utilization of a winter phytoplankton bloom by reproducing copepods. Hydrobiologia 1992, 243/244, 175–183, doi:10.1007/BF00007033.
[7]
Lizotte, M.P. The contributions of sea ice algae to Antarctic marine primary production. Am. Zool. 2001, 41, 57–73, doi:10.1668/0003-1569(2001)041[0057:TCOSIA]2.0.CO;2.
[8]
Kottmeier, S.T.; Sullivan, C.W. Sea ice microbial communities (SIMCO)—9. Effects of temperature and salinity on rates of metabolism and growth of autotrophs and heterotrophs. Polar Biol. 1988, 8, 293–304, doi:10.1007/BF00263178.
[9]
McGrath Grossi, S.; Kottmeier, S.T.; Sullivan, C.W. Sea ice microbial communities. III. Seasonal abundance of microalgae and associated bacteria, McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Microb. Ecol. 1984, 10, 231–242, doi:10.1007/BF02010937.
[10]
Garrison, D.L.; Buck, K.R.; Silver, M.W. Microheterotrophs in the ice-edge zone. Antarct. J. US 1984, 19, 109–111.
[11]
Kottmeier, S.T.; Sullivan, C.W. Bacterial biomass and production in pack ice of Antarctic marginal ice edge zones. Deep Sea Res. Oceanogr. Res. Pap. 1990, 37, 1311–1330, doi:10.1016/0198-0149(90)90045-W.
[12]
Last, W.M. Geolimnology of salt lakes. Geosci. J. 2002, 6, 347–369, doi:10.1007/BF03020619.
[13]
Bowman, J.S.; Sachs, J.P. Chemical and physical properties of some saline lakes in Alberta and Saskatchewan. Saline Syst. 2008, 4, 1–17, doi:10.1186/1746-1448-4-1.
[14]
Swanson, H.; Zurawell, R. Miquelon Lake water quality monitoring report. Provincial Park Lakes Monitoring Program. Monitoring and Evaluation Branch, Environmental Assurance Division, Alberta Environment: Edmonton, Canada, 2006.
[15]
Bierhuizen, J.F.H.; Prepas, E.E. Relationships between nutrients, dominant ions, and phytoplankton standing crop in prairie saline lakes. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1985, 42, 1588, doi:10.1139/f85-199.
[16]
Evans, J.C.; Prepas, E.E. Potential effects of climate change on ion chemistry and phytoplankton communities in prairie saline lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1996, 41, 1063, doi:10.4319/lo.1996.41.5.1063.
[17]
Hammer, U.T. The Saline Lakes of Saskatchewan I. Background and Rationale for Saline Lakes Research. Int. Rev. Gesamten Hydrobiol. Hydrog. 1978, 63, 173, doi:10.1002/iroh.19780630205.
[18]
Haynes, R.C.; Hammer, U.T. The saline lakes of Saskatchewan. IV Primary production of phytoplankton in selected saline ecosystems. Int. Rev. Gesamten Hydrobiol. 1978, 63, 337, doi:10.1002/iroh.19780630304.
[19]
Grasby, S.E.; Londry, K.L. Supporting a Mid-Continent Marine Ecosystem: An Analogue for Martian Springs? Astrobiology 2007, 7, 662, doi:10.1089/ast.2006.0029.
[20]
S？rensen, K.B.; Teske, A. Stratified communities of active archaea in deep marine subsurface sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2006, 72, 4596–4603, doi:10.1128/AEM.00562-06.
[21]
Sorokin, D.Y.; Tourova, T.P.; Lysenko, A.M.; Muyzer, G. Diversity of culturable halophilic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria in hypersaline habitats. Microbiology 2006, 152, 3013–3023, doi:10.1099/mic.0.29106-0.
[22]
Richter-Menge, J.A.; Perovich, D.K.; Elder, B.C.; Claffey, K.; Rigor, I.; Ortmeyer, M. Ice mass-balance buoys: A tool for measuring and attributing changes in the thickness of the Arctic sea-ice cover. Ann. Glaciol. 2006, 44, 205–210, doi:10.3189/172756406781811727.
[23]
Cox, G.F.N.; Weeks, W.F. Equations for determining the gas and brine volumes in sea ice samples. J. Glaciol. 1983, 29, 306–316.
[24]
Porter, K.G.; Feig, Y.S. The use of DAPI for identifying and counting aquatic microflora. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1980, 25, 943–948, doi:10.4319/lo.1980.25.5.0943.
[25]
Bergmann, M.; Peters, R.H. A simple reflectance method for the measurement of particulate pigment in lake water and its application to phosphorus-chlorophyll-seston relationships. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1980, 37, 111–114, doi:10.1139/f80-011.
[26]
Kulp, T.R.; Han, S.; Saltikov, C.W.; Lanoil, B.D.; Zargar, K.; Oremland, R.S. Effects of imposed salinity gradients on dissimilatory arsenate reduction, sulfate reduction, and other microbial processes in sediments from California soda lakes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2008, 74, 3618–3618, doi:10.1128/AEM.00486-08.
[27]
Myers, R.; Fischer, S.G.; Lerman, L.S.; Maniatis, T. Nearly all single base substitutions in DNA fragments joined to a GC-clamp can be detected by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. Nucleic Acids Res. 1985, 139, 3131–3145.
[28]
Díez, B.; Pedrós-Alió, C.; Marsh, T.L.; Massana, R. Application of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) to study the diversity of marine picoeukaryotic assemblages and comparison of DGGE with other molecular techniques. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2001, 67, 2942–2951, doi:10.1128/AEM.67.7.2942-2951.2001.
[29]
Bano, N.; Ruffin, S.; Ransom, B.; Hollibaugh, J.T. Phylogenetic Composition of Arctic Ocean Archaeal Assemblages and Comparison with Antarctic Assemblages. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2004, 70, 781–789, doi:10.1128/AEM.70.2.781-789.2004.
[30]
Labrenz, M.; Sintes, E.; Toetzke, F.; Zumsteg, A.; Herndl, G.J.; Seidler, M.; Jürgens, K. Relevance of a crenarchaeotal subcluster related to Candidatus Nitrosopumilus maritimus to ammonia oxidation in the suboxic zone of the central Baltic Sea. ISME J. 2010, 4, 1496–1508, doi:10.1038/ismej.2010.78.
[31]
Polz, M.F.; Cavanaugh, C.M. Bias in template-to-product ratios in multitemplate PCR. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1998, 64, 3724–3730.
[32]
Muyzer, G.; de Waal, E.C.; Uitterlinden, A.G. Profiling of complex microbial populations by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis of polymerase chain reaction-amplified genes coding for 16S rRNA. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1993, 59, 695–700.
Skidmore, M.; Anderson, S.P.; Sharp, M.; Foght, J.; Lanoil, B.D. Comparison of microbial community compositions of two subglacial environments reveals a possible role for microbes in chemical weathering processes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2005, 71, 6986–6997.
[35]
Good, I.J. The population frequencies of species and the estimation of population parameters. Biometrika 1953, 40, 237.
[36]
Lanoil, B.D.; Sassen, R.; La Duc, M.T.; Sweet, S.T.; Nealson, K.H. Bacteria and Archaea Physically Associated with Gulf of Mexico Gas Hydrates. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2001, 67, 5143–5153, doi:10.1128/AEM.67.11.5143-5153.2001.
[37]
Decipher. Available online: http://decipher.cee.wisc.edu/ (accessed on 12 September 2012).
[38]
Drummond, A.; Ashton, B.; Buxton, S.; Cheung, M.; Cooper, A.; Duran, C.; Field, M.; Heled, J.; Kearse, M.; Markowitz, S.; et al. Geneious Pro: Geneious v5.4.5; Biomatters. Available online: http://www.geneious.com/ (accessed on 12 December 2011).
[39]
Junge, K.; Eicken, H.; Deming, J.W. Bacterial Activity at ？2 to ？20 °C in Arctic Wintertime Sea Ice. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2004, 70, 550–557, doi:10.1128/AEM.70.1.550-557.2004.
[40]
Murray, A.E.; Wu, K.Y.; Moyer, C.L.; Karl, D.M.; Delong, E.F. Evidence for circumpolar distribution of planktonic Archaea in the Southern Ocean. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 1999, 18, 263–273, doi:10.3354/ame018263.
