This article offers some personal reflections on the difficulty of teaching the behaviorist perspective in the psychology classroom. The problems focus on the inadequacy of introductory textbooks—which mischaracterize behaviorism, only present the most extreme behaviorist positions, make no mention of the neobehaviorist perspective, fail to discuss that there is no accepted criteria for determining what type of behavior is cognitive, and provide a definition of cognition that is, not only inconsistent across texts, but so broad as to overshadow the behaviorist contributions. Suggestions are provided for instructors on how to present to their students an accurate portrayal of behaviorism.
References
[1]
Abramson, C.I. Where have I heard it all before: Some neglected issues of invertebrate learning. In Comparative Psychology of Invertebrates: The Field and Laboratory Study of Insect Behavior; Greenberg, G., Tobach, E., Eds.; Garland: New York, NY, USA, 1997; pp. 55–78.
[2]
Abramson, C.I.; Place, A.J. A note regarding the word “Behavior” in glossaries of introductory textbooks and encyclopedia. Percept. Motor Skill. 2005, 101, 568–574.
[3]
Adams, F. Why we still need a mark of the cognitive. Cogn. Syst. Res. 2010, 11, 324–331, doi:10.1016/j.cogsys.2010.03.001.
[4]
Amsel, A. Behaviorism, Neobehaviorism and Cognitivism in Learning Theory: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives; LEA: Hillsdale, NJ, USA, 1989.
[5]
Cromwell, H.C.; Panksepp, J. Rethinking the cognitive revolution from a neural perspective: How overuse/misuse of the term “cognitive” and the neglect of affective controls in behavioral neuroscience could be delaying progress in understanding the BrainMind. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2011, 35, 2026–2035, doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.02.008.
[6]
Grice, J.W. Observation Oriented Modeling: Analysis of Cause in the Behavioral sciences; Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 2011.
[7]
Lee, V.L. Beyond Behaviorism; LEA: Hillsdale, NJ, USA, 1988.
[8]
Moore, J. Philosophy of science, with special consideration given to behaviorism as the philosophy of the science of behavior. Psychol. Rec. 2010, 60, 137–150.
[9]
Moore, J. What do mental terms mean? Psychol. Rec. 2010, 60, 699–714.
[10]
Overskeid, G. They should have thought about the consequences: The crisis of cognitivism and a second chance for behavior analysis. Psychol. Rec. 2008, 58, 131–151.
[11]
Verhave, T. Contributions to the history of psychology: IV. Joseph Buchanan (1785–1829) and the “Law of exercise” (1812). Psychol. Rep. 1967, 20, 127–133, doi:10.2466/pr0.1967.20.1.127.
[12]
Verhave, T. Contributions to the history of psychology: III. G. W. Leibniz (1646–1716) on the association of ideas and learning. Psychol. Rep. 1967, 20, 111–116, doi:10.2466/pr0.1967.20.1.111.
[13]
Behaviorism: A Battle Line!; King, W.P., Ed.; Cokesbury Press: Nashville, TN, USA, 1930.
[14]
Morse, J. Introduction. In Behaviorism: A Battle Line!; King, W.P., Ed.; Cokesbury Press: Nashville, TN, USA, 1930; pp. 11–27.
[15]
Roback, A.A. Behaviorism and Psychology; University Bookstore, Inc.: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1923.
[16]
Buchanan, J. The Philosophy of Human Nature; J. A. Grimes: Richmond, KY, USA, 1812. (Cited in [])..
[17]
Candland, D.K. Plato and behaviorism: A reply. Psychol. Rep. 1957, 3, 300, doi:10.2466/pr0.1957.3.3.300.
[18]
Brooks, G.P. Contributions to the history of psychology: XXX. Note on sources of Francis Hutcheson’s views on the association of ideas. Psychol. Rep. 1982, 50, 1251–1256, doi:10.2466/pr0.1982.50.3c.1251.
[19]
McDougall, W. The psychology they teach in New York. In Behaviorism: A Battle Line!; King, W.P., Ed.; Cokesbury Press: Nashville, TN, USA, 1930; pp. 31–62.
[20]
Coffin, J.H. Can a behaviorist be good? In Behaviorism: A Battle Line!; King, W.P., Ed.; Cokesbury Press: Nashville, TN, USA, 1930; pp. 242–256.
[21]
Berman, L. The Religion Called Behaviorism; Boni & Liveright: New York, NY, USA, 1927.
[22]
Watson, J.B. Psychology as a behaviorist views it. Psychol. Rev. 1913, 20, 158–177, doi:10.1037/h0074428.
[23]
Watson, J.B. Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist; Lippincott: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1919.
[24]
Watson, J.B. Behaviorism, rev. ed.; Norton: New York, NY, USA, 1930.
[25]
Rall, H.F. What does behaviorism mean for religion? In Behaviorism: A Battle Line!; King, W.P., Ed.; Cokesbury Press: Nashville, TN, USA, 1930; pp. 288–304.
[26]
Josey, C.C. Behaviorism and behavior. In Behaviorism: A Battle Line!; King, W.P., Ed.; Cokesbury Press: Nashville, TN, USA, 1930; pp. 63–77.
[27]
Watson, J.B. A schematic outline of the emotions. Psychol. Rev. 1919, 26, 165–177, doi:10.1037/h0072509.
[28]
Mowrer, O.H.; Lamoreaux, R.R. Fear as an intervening variable in avoidance conditioning. J. Comp. Psychol. 1946, 39, 29–50, doi:10.1037/h0060150.
[29]
Mowrer, O.H. Learning Theory and Behavior; Wiley: New York, NY, USA, 1960.
[30]
Amsel, A. Frustrative nonreward in partial reinforcement and discrimination learning: Some recent history and a theoretical extension. Psychol. Rev. 1962, 69, 306–328, doi:10.1037/h0046200.
[31]
Miller, N.E.; Kraeling, D. Displacement: Greater generalization of approach than avoidance in a generalized approach-avoidance conflict. J. Exp. Psychol. 1952, 43, 217–221, doi:10.1037/h0063057.
[32]
Centner, A.W. Method in psychology and behaviorism. In Behaviorism: A Battle line!; King, W.P., Ed.; Cokesbury Press: Nashville, TN, USA, 1930; pp. 78–93.
[33]
Seneker, J.S. Behaviorism and character. In Behaviorism: A Battle line!; King, W.P., Ed.; Cokesbury Press: Nashville, TN, USA, 1930; pp. 212–241.
[34]
Mark, J. Behaviorism and religion. In Behaviorism: A Battle line!; King, W.P., Ed.; Cokesbury Press: Nashville, TN, USA, 1930; pp. 273–287.
[35]
Cohen, D. J. B. Watson: The Founder of Behaviorism; Routledge & Kegan Paul: London, UK, 1979.
[36]
Catania, C.A.; Harnad, S.; Skinner, B.F. The Selection of Behavior: The Operant Behaviorism of B. F. Skinner: Comments and Consequences; Cambridge University Press: New York, NY, USA, 1988.
[37]
Boring, E.G. A History of Experimental Psychology, 2nd ed.; Appleton Century Crofts: New York, NY, USA, 1950.
[38]
Mechanisms of Adaptive Behavior: Clark L. Hull’s Theoretical Papers, with Commentary; Amsel, A., Rashotte, M.E., Eds.; Columbia University Press: New York, NY, USA, 1984.
[39]
Webster, S.; Coleman, S.R. Contributions to the history of psychology: LXXXVI. Hull and his critics: The reception of Clark L. Hull’s behavior theory, 1943–1960. Psychol. Rep. 1992, 70, 1063–1071.
[40]
Thorndike, E.L.; Rock, R.T., Jr. Learning without awareness of what is being learned or intent to learn it. J. Exp. Psychol. 1934, 17, 1–19, doi:10.1037/h0073815.
[41]
Thorndike, E.L. Selected Writings from a Connectionist’s Psychology; Appleton-Century-Crofts: New York, NY, USA, 1949.
[42]
Guthrie, E.R. The Psychology of Human Conflict; Harper and Brothers: New York, NY, USA, 1938.
[43]
Denny, M.R. A learning model. In Chemistry of Learning; Corning, W.C., Ratner, S.C., Eds.; Plenum: NY, USA, 1967; pp. 32–42.
[44]
Haraway, M.M.; Maples, E.G. Contiguous withdrawal conditioning: A model for punishment. Psychol. Rep. 1974, 35, 223–226, doi:10.2466/pr0.1974.35.1.223.
[45]
Haraway, M.M.; Wirth, P.W.; Maples, E.G. Contiguous approach conditioning: A model for positive reinforcement. Psychol. Rep. 1974, 34, 127–130.
[46]
Maples, E.G.; Tomporowski, P.D.; Haraway, M.M. Contiguous approach conditioning: A model for negative reinforcement. Psychol. Rep. 1975, 37, 851–856, doi:10.2466/pr0.1975.37.3.851.
[47]
Haraway, M.M.; Maples, E.G.; Cooper, S.C. Contiguous approach conditioning: A model for Sidman avoidance learning. Psychol. Rep. 1984, 55, 291–295, doi:10.2466/pr0.1984.55.1.291.
[48]
Tolman, E.C. Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men; The Century Co.: New York, NY, USA, 1932.
[49]
Tolman, E.C. Collected papers in psychology; Cambridge University Press: London, UK, 1951.
[50]
Dollard, J.; Miller, N.E. Personality and Psychotherapy; McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 1950.
[51]
Miller, N.E. Neal E. Miller: Selected Papers; Rockefeller University: New York, NY, USA, 1971.
[52]
Staats, A.W.; Staats, C.K. Complex Human Behavior: A Systematic Extension of Learning Principles; Holt, Reinehart and Winston: New York, NY, USA, 1963.
[53]
Denny, M.R. “Retention” of S-R in the midst of the cognitive invasion. In Theories of Animal Memory; Kendrick, D.F., Rilling, M.E., Denny, M.R., Eds.; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Hillsdale, NJ, USA, 1986; pp. 35–50.
[54]
MacCorquodale, K.; Meehl, P.E. Preliminary suggestions as to a formalization of expectancy theory. Psychol. Rev. 1953, 60, 55–63, doi:10.1037/h0057598.
[55]
Miller, N.E. Liberalization of basic S-R concepts: Extension to conflict behavior, motivation, and social learning. In Psychology: A Study of a Science; Koch, S., Ed.; McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 1959; Volume 2, pp. 196–292.
[56]
Bernhardt, K.S. Practical Psychology; McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 1945.
[57]
Coleman, S.R.; Fanelli, A.; Gedeon, S. Psychology of the scientist: LXXII. Coverage of classical conditioning in textbooks in the psychology of learning 1952–1995. Psychol. Rep. 2000, 86, 1011–1027, doi:10.2466/pr0.2000.86.3.1011.
[58]
Moore, T.V. Cognitive Psychology; Lippincott: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1939.
[59]
Knapp, T.J. Contributions to the history of psychology: XXXIX. T. V. Moore and his cognitive psychology of 1939. Psychol. Rep. 1985, 57, 1311–1316, doi:10.2466/pr0.1985.57.3f.1311.
[60]
Neisser, U. Cognitive Psychology; Appleton-Century-Crofts: New York, NY, USA, 1967.
[61]
Ciccarelli, S.K.; White, N.J. Psychology, 3rd ed.; Pearson: Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA, 2012.
[62]
Gray, P. Psychology, 6th ed.; Worth: New York, NY, USA, 2011.
[63]
Huffman, K. Psychology in Action, 8th ed.; John Wiley and Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2007.
[64]
Myers, D.G. Psychology, 10th ed.; Worth Publishers: New York, NY, USA, 2013.
[65]
Schacter, D.L.; Gilbert, D.T.; Wegner, D.M. Introducing Psychology, 2nd ed.; Worth Publishers: New York, NY, USA, 2013.
[66]
Wade, C.; Tavris, C. Invitation to Psychology, 5th ed.; Pearson: Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA, 2012.
[67]
Wood, S.E.; Wood, E.G.; Boyd, D. Mastering the World of Psychology, 4th ed.; Pearson: Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA, 2011.
[68]
Zimbardo, P.G.; Johnson, R.L.; McCann, V. Psychology: Core Concepts; Pearson: Boston, MA, USA, 2012.
[69]
Ashcraft, M.H.; Radvansky, G.A. Cognition, 5th ed.; Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA, 2010.
[70]
Reed, S.K. Cognition: Theory and Applications, 9th ed.; Wadsworth Cengage: Belmont, CA, USA, 2012.
[71]
Adams, F.; Aizawa, K. The Bounds of Cognition; Wiley-Blackwell: Oxford, UK, 2008.
[72]
Grice, J.W.; Barrett, P.T.; Schlimgen, L.A.; Abramson, C.I. Toward a brighter future for psychology as an observation oriented science. Behav. Sci. 2012, 2, 1–22, doi:10.3390/bs2010001.
[73]
Sheldon, J.P. Operant conditioning concepts in introductory psychology textbooks and their companion web sites. Teach. Psychol. 2002, 29, 281–285, doi:10.1207/S15328023TOP2904_04.
[74]
Greaves, G. Behaviorism versus phenomenology: A needless conceptual muddle. Psychol. Rep. 1972, 30, 759–770, doi:10.2466/pr0.1972.30.3.759.
[75]
Muckler, F.A. On the reason of animals: Historical antecedents to the logic of modern behaviorism. Psychol. Rep. 1963, 12, 863–882, doi:10.2466/pr0.1963.12.3.863.
[76]
Sayers, D. The lost tools of learning. Wikipedia, 1947. Available online: http://www.gbt.org/text/sayers.html (accessed on 9 November 2012).
[77]
Abramson, C.I.; Long, S.L. The use of Zazzle to turn historically important psychologists and movements into U.S. Postage stamps: The example of Charles Henry Turner. Innovat. Teach. 2012, 1, 5, doi:10.2466/11.IT.1.5.
[78]
Krueger, J.R. An early instance of conditioning from Chinese dynastic histories. Psychol. Rep. 1961, 9, 117.
[79]
Abramson, C.I.; Curb, L.A.; Barber, K.R.; Sokolowski, M.B.C. The use of invertebrates and other animals to demonstrate principles of learning: Activities developed by the laboratory of Comparative Psychology and Behavioral Biology. J. Behav. Neurosci. Res. 2011, 9, 1–6.
[80]
Abramson, C.I.; Hilker, A.C.; Becker, B.; Barber, K.R.; Miskovsky, C. Cost-effective laboratory exercises to teach principles in the comparative analysis of behavior. J. Behav. Neurosci. Res. 2011, 9, 7–15.
[81]
Binet, A. The Psychic Life of Micro-Organisms: A Study in Experimental Psychology; Longmans, Green, & Co.: London, UK, 1889.
[82]
Abramson, C.I. Aversive conditioning in honey bees (Apis mellifera). J. Comp. Psychol. 1986, 100, 108–116, doi:10.1037/0735-7036.100.2.108.
[83]
Abramson, C.I.; Armstrong, P.M.; Feinman, R.A.; Feinman, R.D. Signaled avoidance in the eye withdrawal reflex in the green crab. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 1988, 50, 483–492, doi:10.1901/jeab.1988.50-483.
[84]
Abramson, C.I.; Buckbee, D.A. Pseudoconditioning in earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris): Support for nonassociative explanations of classical conditioning phenomena through an olfactory paradigm. J. Comp. Psychol. 1995, 109, 390–397, doi:10.1037/0735-7036.109.4.390.
[85]
Abramson, C.I.; Nolf, S.L.; Mixson, T.A.; Wells, H. Can honey bees learn the removal of a stimulus as a conditioning cue? Ethology 2010, 116, 843–854.
