A total of 92 commercial compound feeds from South Africa were investigated for various mycotoxins. The data reveal the highest incidence of feed contamination for fumonisins (FB) (range: 104–2999 μg/kg) followed by deoxynivalenol (DON) (range: 124–2352 μg/kg) and zearalenone (ZEA) (range: 30–610 μg/kg). The incidence of ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxins (AF)-contaminated samples were generally low, i.e., 4% and 30% of samples with levels ranging between 6.4 and 17.1 μg/kg (mean: 9.9 μg/kg) for OTA and 0.2 to 71.8 μg/kg (mean: 9.0 μg/kg) for AF. No samples contained T-2 toxin or HT-2 toxin. However, all samples analyzed were contaminated with at least one mycotoxin with a majority containing several mycotoxins. In particular, 3 of 4 positive samples mainly cattle feeds that had relatively high contents of OTA (ranging from 7 to 17.1 μg/kg) also contained high amounts of AF (>27.5 μg/kg) together with FB, DON and ZEA. Apart from a few samples, the levels of mycotoxins may be regarded as safe for livestock production in South Africa. However, the persistent co-occurrence of mycotoxins in samples, especially those at high concentrations, i.e., AF and OTA, together with other mycotoxins studied, may elicit synergistic or additive effects in animals. This should raise concern as multiple contaminations may pose a risk to livestock production and health.
References
[1]
Cusumano, V.; Rossano, F.; Merendino, R.A.; Arena, A.; Costa, G.B.; Mancuso, G.; Baroni, A.; Losi, E. Immunobiological activities of mould products: functional impairment of human monocytes exposed to aflatoxin B1. Res. Microbiol. 1996, 147, 385–391, doi:10.1016/0923-2508(96)84713-9.
[2]
Sharma, R.P. Immunotoxicity of mycotoxins. J. Dairy Sci. 1993, 76, 892–897, doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(93)77415-9.
[3]
Marguardt, R.R. Effects of molds and their toxins on livestock performance: A western Canadian perspective. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 1996, 58, 77–89, doi:10.1016/0377-8401(95)00875-6.
[4]
Fink-Gremmels, J.; Malekinejad, H. Clinical effects and biochemical mechanisms associated with exposure to the mycoestrogen zearalenone. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2007, 137, 326–341, doi:10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2007.06.008.
[5]
Duarte, S.C.; Lino, C.M.; Pena, A. Ochratoxin A in feed of food-producing animals: An undesirable mycotoxin with health and performance effects. Vet. Microbiol. 2011, 154, 1–13, doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.05.006.
[6]
World Health Organization. AFRO Food Safety Newsletter. World Health Organization Food safety (FOS). Mycotoxins in African Foods: Implications to Food Safety and Health. Issue No. 2. July 2006. Available online: http://www.google.com.hk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q= Mycotoxins+in+African+foods:+Implications+to+food+safety+and+health&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&ved=0CCoQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.afro.who.int%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D1724&ei=EfB8UJqlKKqk4gSG8oGYCg&usg=AFQjCNGv5Dli0nQVuHsZFN6QHh7fKG5DNw (accessed on 4 October 2011).
[7]
Bastianello, S.S.; Nesbit, J.W.; Williams, M.C.; Lange, A.L. Pathological findings in a natural outbreak of aflatoxicosis in dogs. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res. 1987, 54, 635–640.
[8]
Arnot, L.F.; Duncan, N.M.; Coetzer, H.; Botha, C.J. An outbreak of canine aflatoxicosis in Gauteng Province, South Africa. J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 2012, 83, 1–4.
[9]
Mbambo, S. National Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa. 2011.
[10]
Reiter, E.V.; Dutton, M.F.; Mwanza, M.; Agus, A.; Prawano, D.; H？ggblom, P.; Razzazi-Fazeli, E.; Zentek, J.; Andersson, G.; Njobeh, P.B. Uncertainty from sampling in measurement of aflatoxins in animal feedstuffs: Application of the Eurachem/CITAC guidelines. Analyst 2011, 136, 4059–4069, doi:10.1039/c1an15124j.
[11]
Tevell ？berg, A.; Solyakov, A.; Bondesson, U. Development and in-house validation of an LC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous quantification of the mycotoxins deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, T-2 and HT-2 toxin, ochratoxin A, and fumonisin B1 and B2 in vegetable animal feed. Food Addit. Contam. Part A 2012. submitted for publication.
[12]
Barmark, A.L.; Larsson, K. Immunoaffinity column cleanup/liquid chromatographic determination of aflatoxins: An interlaboratory study. J. AOAC Int. 1994, 77, 46–53.
[13]
Government Gazette. Fertilizers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act (Act No. 36 of 1947). No. R70; Pretoria, South Africa, 2010; pp. 4–18.
[14]
Gelderblom, W.C.A.; Jaskiewics, K.; Marasas, W.F.O.; Thiel, P.G.; Horak, M.J.; Vleggaar, R.; Kriek, N.P.J. Fumonisin-novel mycotoxins with cancer promoting activity produced by Fusarium moniliforme. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1988, 54, 1806–1811.
[15]
Dutton, M.F.; Kinsey, A. Occurrence of mycotoxins in cereals and animal feedstuffs in Natal, South Africa 1994. Mycopathologia 1996, 131, 31–36, doi:10.1007/BF01103901.
[16]
Mngadi, P.T.; Govinden, R.; Odhav, B. Co-occurring mycotoxins in animal feeds. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2008, 7, 2239–2243.
[17]
Griessler, K. A survey of mycotoxins in feed samples from South Africa. Pluimvee Poultry Bulletin 2009, 419.
[18]
Stoev, S.D.; Denev, S.; Dutton, M.F.; Njobeh, P.B.; Mosonik, S.J.; Steenkamp, P.A.; Petkov, J. Complex etiology and pathology of mycotoxic nephropathy in South African pigs. Mycotoxin Res. 2010, 26, 31–46, doi:10.1007/s12550-009-0038-7.
[19]
Rodrigues, I.; Handl, J.; Binder, E.M. Mycotoxin occurrence in commodities, feeds and feed ingredients sourced in the Middle East and Africa. Food Addit. Contam. Part B 2011, 4, 168–179, doi:10.1080/19393210.2011.589034.
[20]
Gonzalez, H.H.; Martinez, E.J.; Pacin, A.M.; Pacin, S.L.; Resnik, S.L.; Sydenham, E.W. Natural co-occurrence of fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and aflatoxins in field trial corn in Argentina. Food Addit. Contam. 1999, 16, 565–569, doi:10.1080/026520399283704.
[21]
Dragon, Y.P.; Bidlack, W.R.; Cohen, S.M.; Goldsworthy, T.L.; Hard, G.C.; Howard, P.C.; Riley, R.T.; Voss, K.A. Implications of apoptosis for toxicity, carcinogenicity, and risk assessment: Fumonisin B1 as an example. Toxicol. Sci. 2001, 61, 6–17, doi:10.1093/toxsci/61.1.6.
[22]
Stoev, S.D.; Hald, B.; Mantle, P. Porcine nephropathy in Bulgaria: A progressive syndrome of complex of uncertain (mycotoxin) etiology. Vet. Rec. 1998, 142, 190–194, doi:10.1136/vr.142.8.190.
[23]
Stoev, S.D. Complex etiology, prophylaxis and hygiene control in mycotoxic nephropathies in farm animals and humans. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2008, 9, 578–605, doi:10.3390/ijms9040578.
[24]
Stoev, S.D.; Dutton, M.F.; Njobeh, P.B.; Mosonik, S.J.; Steenkamp, P.A. Mycotoxic nephropathy in Bulgarian pigs and chickins: Complex ethiology and pathology. Food Addit. Contam. Part A 2010, 27, 72–88, doi:10.1080/02652030903207227.
[25]
International Agency for Research on Cancer. Toxins Derived from Fusarium graminearum, F. culmorum and F. crookwellense: Zearalenone, Deoxynivalenol, Nivalenol and Fusarenone X. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Some Naturally Occurring Substances; Food Items and Constituents, Hetercyclic Aromatic Amines and Mycotoxins; IARC: Lyon, France, 1993; 56, pp. 445–466.
[26]
Benford, D.; Boyle, B.; Dekant, W.; Fuchs, R.; Gaylor, D.W.; Hard, G.; McGregor, D.B.; Pitt, J.I.; Plestina, R.; Shephard, G.; et al. Ochratoxin A; The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives: Geneva, Switzerland, 2001; pp. 1–172.
[27]
Tanaka, T.; Hasegawa, A.; Yamamato, S.; Lee, S.; Sigiura, Y.; Ueno, Y. Worldwide contamination of cereals by Fusarium mycotoxins nivalenol, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone. A survey of 19 countries. J. Agric. Food. Chem. 1988, 36, 979–983, doi:10.1021/jf00083a019.
[28]
Wu, X.; Murphy, P.; Cunnick, J.; Hendrich, S. Synthesis and characterization of deoxynivalenol glucuronide: Its comparative immunotoxicity with deoxynivalenol. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2007, 45, 1846–1855, doi:10.1016/j.fct.2007.03.018.
[29]
Sibanda, L.; Marovatsanga, L.T.; Pestka, J.J. Review of mycotoxin work in sub-Saharan Africa. Food Control 1997, 8, 21–29, doi:10.1016/S0956-7135(96)00057-6.
[30]
South African Grain Laboratories. Mycotoxin results over ten years-Summary of season 1999/2000 to 2008/. 2009. Available online: http://www.sagl.co.za (accessed on 25 October, 2011).
[31]
Mashinini, K.; Dutton, M.F. The incidence of fungi and mycotoxins in South African wheat and wheat-based products. J. Environ. Sci. Health. Part B 2006, 41, 285–296, doi:10.1080/03601230500357348.
[32]
European Commission. Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 of 19 December, as Amended, on Setting Maximum Levels of Certain Contaminants in Foodstuffs. Off. J. Eur. Union 2006, 364, 5–24.
[33]
Breytenbach, L. Animal Feed Manufacturers’ Association, Centurion, Gauteng, South Africa. 2011.
[34]
Stoev, S.D.; Gundasheva, D.; Zarkov, I.; Mircheva, T.; Zapryanova, D.; Denev, S.; Mitev, Y.; Daskalov, H.; Dutton, M.; Mwanza, M. Experimental mycotoxic nephropathy in pigs provoked by a mouldy diet containing ochratoxin A and fumonisin B1. Exp. Toxicol. Pathol. 2011. in press.
