This paper draws on research conducted in the past two decades examining issues related to the human element in mine disasters. While much of the emergency response community employs a systems approach that takes into account psychosocial issues as they impact all aspects of an emergency, the mining industry has lagged behind in integrating this critical element. It is only within the past few years that behavioral interventions have begun to be seen as a part of disaster readiness and resiliency in the industry. The authors discuss the potential applications of psychosocial studies and suggest ways to improve mine emergency planning, psychological support, and decision-making during a response, as well as actions in the aftermath of incidents. Topics covered, among others, include an economic rationale for including such studies in planning a mine emergency response, sociological issues as they impact such things as leadership and rescue team dynamics, and psychological issues that have an effect on individual capacity to function under stress such as during escape, in refuge alternatives, and in body recovery. This information is intended to influence the mine emergency escape curriculum and impact actions and decision-making during and after a mine emergency. The ultimate goal is to mitigate the trauma experienced by individuals, the organization, and the community.
References
[1]
Dynes, R. The Comparative Study of Disaster: A Social Organizational Approach; Disaster Research Center, University of Delaware: Newark, DE, USA, 1975.
[2]
Quarantelli, E.; Dynes, R. Community Response to Disasters; Disaster Research Center, University of Delaware: Newark, DE, USA, 1985.
[3]
Martin, G. Escape from Farmington Number 9: An Oral History; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2008.
[4]
Togneri, C. Not in Our Lifetime, Coal River Valley Tribune Review, Coal River Valley, WV, USA, 31, October, 2010.
[5]
Everly, G.; Perrin, P.; Everly, G. Psychologocal Issues in Escape, Rescue, and Survival in the Wake of Disaster; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2008.
[6]
Harrald, J.; Fiedrich, F.; Madhukar, A.; Molinia, M. An Annotated Bibliography of Relevant Issues in Human Escape and Rescue Outside the Mining Industry; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2008.
[7]
United States Congress. Mine Improvement and New Emergency Response Act; United States Congress: Washington, DC, USA, 2006.
[8]
National Mining Association. Improving Mine Safety Technology and Training: Establishing US Global Leadership; National Mining Association: Washington, DC, USA, 2006; p. 193.
[9]
Murray, K.; Pogue, C.; Stahlhut, R.; Finnie, M.; Webb, A.; Burk, A.; Beiter, D.; Francart, W.; Tjerlund, D.; Waggett, J. Fatal Underground Coal Mine Fire, Aracoma Alma Mine Number; US Department of Labor: Arlington, VA, USA, 2006.
[10]
Light, T.; Herndon, R.; Guley, A.; Cook, G.; Odum, M.; Bates, R.; Schroeder, M.; Campbell, C.; Pruitt, M. Fatal Underground Coal Mine Explosion, Darby Number 1 Mine; US Department of Labor: Arlington, VA, USA, 2007.
[11]
McKinney, R.; Crocco, W.; Stricklin, K.; Murray, K.; Blankenship, S.; Davidson, R.; Urosek, J.; Stephan, C.; Beiter, D. Fatal Underground Explosions, Number 5 Mine; Jim Walters Resources, Inc., US Department of Labor: Arlington, VA, USA, 2001.
[12]
Selye, H. The Stress of Life; McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 1956.
[13]
Asterita, M. The Physiology of Stress; Human Sciences Press: New York, NY, USA, 1985; p. 264.
[14]
Gates, R.; Phillips, R.; Urosek, J.; Stephan, C.; Stoltz, R.; Swentosky, D.; Harris, G.; O’Donnell, J.; Dresch, R. Fatal Underground Coal Mine Explosion, Sago Mine; US Department of Labor: Arlington, VA, USA, 2006.
[15]
Gates, R.; Gauna, M.; Morley, T.; O'Donnell, J.; Smith, G.; Watkins, T.; Weaver, C.; Zelanko, J. Fatal Underground Coal Burst Accidents, Crandall Canyon Mine; US Department of Labor: Arlington, VA, USA, 2007.
[16]
Myers, D. Psychology; Worth Publishers: New York, NY, USA, 1992.
[17]
Rundell, J.; Ursano, R.; Holloway, H.; Silberman, E. Psychiatric responses to trauma. Hosp. Community Psychiatr. 1986, 40, 68–74.
[18]
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Traumatic Incident Stress: Information for Emergency Response Workers; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2002.
[19]
Mitchell, J. Stress: The history, status, and future of critical incident stress debriefings. JEMS 1988, 46–47, 47–52.
[20]
Kowalski-Trakofler, K.; Vaught, C.; Brnich, M.; Jansky, J. A study of first moments in underground coal mine emergency response. JHSEM 2010, 7. Article 39.
[21]
Mallett, L.; Vaught, C.; Brnich, M. The Emergency Communication Triangle; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 1999.
[22]
UBB Transcripts Detail Early Conflicts, International Longwall News, Leederville, WA, Australia, 11, May, 2011.
[23]
Vaught, C.; Brnich, M.; Mallett, L.; Cole, H.; Wiehagen, W.; Conti, R.; Kowalski, K.; Litton, C. Behavioral and Organizational Dimensions of Underground Mine Fires; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2000.
[24]
Hammond, K. Judgments Under Stress; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 2000.
[25]
Gillis, J. Effects of life stress and dysphoria on complex judgments. Psychol. Rep. 1993, 72, 1355–1363, doi:10.2466/pr0.1993.72.3c.1355.
[26]
Keinan, G.; Friedland, N.; Ben-Porath, Y. Decision-making under stress: Scanning of alternatives under physical threat. Acta Psychol. 1987, 64, 219–228, doi:10.1016/0001-6918(87)90008-4.
[27]
Flanagan, J. The critical incident technique. Psychol. Bull. 1954, 51, 327–358, doi:10.1037/h0061470.
[28]
Kowalski-Trakofler, K.; Vaught, C.; Scharf, T. Judgment and decision-making under stress: An overview for emergency managers. Int.. Emerg. Manag. 2003, 9, 138–143.
[29]
Scharf, T.; Vaught, C.; Kidd, P.; Steiner, L.; Kowalski, K.; Wiehagen, W.; Rethi, L.; Cole, H. Toward a typology of dynamic work environments. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. 2001, 7, 1827–1841, doi:10.1080/20018091095429.
[30]
Kerstholt, J. The effect of time pressure on decision-making behavior in a dynamic task environment. Acta Psychol. 1994, 84, 89–104, doi:10.1016/0001-6918(94)90013-2.
[31]
Lazarus, R.; Lazarus, B. Passion and Reason: Making Sense of our Emotions; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 1994.
[32]
Kontogiannis, T.; Kossiavelou, Z. Stress and team performance: Principles and challanges for intellegent decision aids. Saf. Sci. 1999, 33, 103–128, doi:10.1016/S0925-7535(99)00027-2.
[33]
Serfaty, D.; Entin, E. Adaptive team coordination. Hum. Factors 1999, 41, 312–325, doi:10.1518/001872099779591196.
[34]
Poole, M.; van de ven, A. Handbook of Organizational Change and Innovation; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 2004; p. 429.
[35]
Hoffman, J.; Baskaaran, S. The role of visual attention in saccadic eye movements. Percept. Psychophys. 1995, 57, 787–795, doi:10.3758/BF03206794.
[36]
Kowalski-Trakofler, K.; Vaught, C.; Brnich, M. Expectations training for miners using self-contained self-rescuers in escapes from underground coal mines. J. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 2008, 5, 671–677, doi:10.1080/15459620802333632.
[37]
United States Department of Labor, Refuge Alternatives for Underground Coal Mines: Final Rule, US Department of Labor, Arlington, VA, USA, 2008.
[38]
Vaught, C.; Hall, E.; Klein, K. Harry’s Hard Choices; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2009.
[39]
Margolis, K.; Kowalski-Trakofler, K.; Kingsley-Westerman, C. Refuge Chamber Expectations Training; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2009.
[40]
Ounanian, D. Refuge Alternatives in Underground Coal Mines; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2007.
[41]
Brnich, M.J.; Kowalski-Trakofler, K.M. Underground coal mine disasters 1900–2010: Events, responses, and a look to the future. Extracting the Science: A Century of Mining Research; Brune, J., Ed.; Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc.: Littleton, CO, USA, 2010.
[42]
Lowe, N.; Swanson, P.; Varley, F. The Impact of Surface Features above Underground Mines on Emergency Response; Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration: Littleton, CO, USA, 2009.
[43]
AOL News; AOL Inc.: New York, NY, USA, 2011. Available online: http://www.aolnews.com/world/article/trapped-chilean-miners-appear-upbeat-in-video/19610450?icid=.... (accessed on 1 June 2011).
[44]
Hersche, R.; Wenker, O. Case report: Lassing mining incident. Int. J. Rescue Disaster Med. 2000, 2, 5.
[45]
Kowalski, K.; Mallett, L.; Brnich, M. Leadership in Escape from Underground Mine Fires; US Bureau of Mines: Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 1994.
[46]
Kolditz, T.; Brazil, D. Authentic leadership in extreme settings. MLM 2005, 3, 256–345.
[47]
Waugh, L.; Streib, G. Collaboration and leadership for effective emergency management. Publ. Admin. Rev. 2006, 66, 131–130, doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2006.00673.x.
[48]
National Mining Association. Mine Rescue Handbook: Emergency Response Procedures, Practices and Responsibilities; National Mining Association: Washington, DC, USA, 2007.
[49]
Grosch, J.; Caruso, C.; Rosa, R.; Sauter, S. Long hours of work in the US: Associations with demographic and organizational characteristics, psychosocial working conditions, and health. Am. J. Ind. Med. 2006, 49, 943–952, doi:10.1002/ajim.20388.
[50]
Killgore, W.; Balkin, T.; Wesensten, N. Impaired decision making following 49 h of sleep deprivation. J. Sleep Res. 2006, 15, 7–13.
[51]
Caruso, C.; Bushnell, T.; Eggerth, D. Overtime and Extended Work Shifts; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Washington, DC, USA, 2004.
[52]
Harrison, Y.; Horne, J. The impact of sleep deprivation on decision making: A review. J. Exp. Psychol. Appl. 2000, 6, 236–249, doi:10.1037/1076-898X.6.3.236.
[53]
Proctor, S.; White, R.; Robins, T.; Echeverria, D.; Rocskay, A. Effect of overtime work on cognitive functioning in automobile workers. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 1996, 22, 124–132, doi:10.5271/sjweh.120.
[54]
Lamond, D.; Dawson, N. Quantifying the performance impairment associated with fatigue. J. Sleep Res. 1999, 8, 255–262, doi:10.1046/j.1365-2869.1999.00167.x.
[55]
Crandall Canyon, Utah. USA Today. 17August 2007, 3A.
[56]
Dunning, C.; Silva, M. Disaster induced trauma in rescue workers. Victimology 1980, 5, 287–297.
[57]
Everly, G.; Mitchell, J. The prevention of work-related post-traumatic stress: The critical incident stress debriefing process. In Proceedings of the American Psychological Association and National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; Washington, DC, USA: 19-22 November 1992.
[58]
Doepel, D. Crisis management: The psychological dimension. Ind. Crisis Q. 1991, 5, 177–188.
[59]
Miles, M.; Demi, A.; Mostyyn-Aker, P. Rescue workers’ reactions following the hyatt hotel disaster. Death Educ. 1984, 8, 315–331, doi:10.1080/07481188408252470.
[60]
Ursano, R.; Fullerton, C.; Vance, K.; Kao, T. Post-traumatic stress disorder and identification in disaster workers. Am. J. Psychiatr. 1999, 156, 353–359.
[61]
Jackson, B.; Baker, J.; Ridgely, M.; Bartisaw, J.; Linn, H. Protecting Emergency Responders: Safety Management in Disaster and Terrorism Response; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Washington, DC, USA, 2002.
[62]
Fullerton, C.; Ursano, R.; Wang, L. Acute stress disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder and depression in disaster rescue workers. Am. J. Psychiatr. 2004, 161, 1370–1376, doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.8.1370.
[63]
Nixon, S.; Bunch, K.; Smith, E. Psychiatric disorders in rescue workers after the oklahoma city bombing. Am. J. Psychiatr. 2002, 159, 857–859, doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.5.857.
[64]
Murphy, S.; Johnson, L.; Beaton, R. Firefighters’ Cognitive Appraisals of Job Concerns; Threats to Well-Being, and Social Support Before and After the Terrorist Attacks on 11 September 2001; University of Washington: Seattle, WA, USA, 2004.
[65]
Biggs, Q. Challenges in U.S. Army mortuary affairs remains recovery mission to 2010 Haiti earthquake. In Proceedings of Work, Stress and Health 2011 Symposium, Proceeding of Response and Recovery Work Beyond Familiar Roles: Risk and Resilience Lessons from the Field, Orlando, FL, USA, 19–22 May 2011.
[66]
Mitchell, J. Stress, the history, status and future of critical incident stress debriefings. J. Emerg. Medical Serv. 1988, 13, 46–47,49–52.
[67]
McCarrol, J.; Ursano, R.; Wright, K.; Fullerton, C. Handling bodies after violent death: Strategies for coping. Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 1993, 63, 209–214, doi:10.1037/h0079438.
[68]
Hersheiser, M.; Quarantelli, E. The handling of the dead in a disaster. Omega 1976, 7, 195–208.
[69]
US Department of Justice. Responding to Terrorism Victims: Oklahoma City and Beyond; US Department of Justice: Washington, DC, USA, 2000.
[70]
Watson, J.; Gayor, M.; Connolly, M. Epidemics after natural disasters. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2007, 13, 1–5, doi:10.3201/eid1301.060779.
[71]
Morgan, O. The Disaster Impact Pyramid; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta, GA, USA, 2004.
[72]
2 Miners Who Watched for Sago Hazards Commit Suicide, Boston Globe Associated Press, Boston, MA, USA, 26 September 2006.
[73]
Green, B. Psychosocial research in traumatic stress: An update. J. Trauma. Stress 1994, 7, 341–362, doi:10.1002/jts.2490070303.
[74]
Baum, A.; Fleming, I. Implications of psychological research on stress and technological accidents. Am. Psychol. 1993, 48, 665–672, doi:10.1037/0003-066X.48.6.665.
[75]
Bravo, M. The physiological effecs of chronic stress at three mile island. 1983. J. Consult. 1983, 51, 565–572, doi:10.1037/0022-006X.51.4.565.
[76]
Steinglass, P.; Gerrity, E. Natural disaster and post-traumatic stress disorder: Short term versus long term recovery in two disaster-affected communities. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 1990, 20, 1746–1765, doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1990.tb01509.x.
[77]
Ursano, R.; McCaughey, A.; Fullerton, C. Individual and Community Responses to Trauma and Disaster: The Structure of Human Chaos; Cambridge University Press: New York, NY, USA, 1994.
[78]
Lagnado, L. FDNY Tries to Rescue its Own, Wall Street Journal, New York, NY, USA, 2 March 2002. Section D.
[79]
Stapleton, A.; Lating, J.; Kirkihart, M.; Everly, G. Effects of medical crisis intervention on anxiety, depression, and posttraumatic stress symptoms: A meta analysis. Psychiatr. Q. 2006, 77, 231–238, doi:10.1007/s11126-006-9010-2.
[80]
Gerrity, E.; Flynn, B. Mental health consequences of disasters. In Handbook of Stress: Theoretical and Clinical Aspects; Goldberger, A., Breznitz, S., Eds.; The Free Press: New York, NY, USA, 1998; pp. 7–20.
[81]
American Red Cross. Disaster Mental Health Services Program; Washington, DC, USA, 1991.
[82]
Stevens, J.; Calitz, J. Trauma-related risk factors in mine workers with PTSD: A prospective follow up study. S. Afr. J. Psychol. 2006, 36, 425–445.
[83]
Galvin, J. Review of Best Practices for Escape and Rescue from Underground Coal Mines in Australia; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2008.
[84]
Wu, K.; Gray, T. Review of Best Practices for Escape and Rescue from Underground Coal Mines in China; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2008.
[85]
Pavlovich, J. Review of Best Practices for Escape and Rescue from Underground Coal Mines in Ukraine, Poland and Russia; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2008.
[86]
Marx, W.; van Zyl, F.; Doyle, B.; McIntyre, R. Review of Best Practices for Escape and Rescue from Underground Coal Mines in south Africa; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2008.
[87]
Alexander, D.; Bealko, S.; Brnich, M.; Kowalski-Trakofler, K.; Peters, R. Research Report on Strategies for Escape and Rescue for Underground Coal Mines; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2010.
[88]
Maiden, R. Managing trauma in the South African mining industry. Int. J. Emerg. Manag. Health 2005, 7, 213–217.
[89]
International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. Russian Federation: Mine Blast in Kemerovo Region. DREF Operation Final Report; Geneva, Switzerland, 2008.
[90]
Reissman, D.; Klomp, R.; Kent, A.; Pfefferbaum, B. Exploring psychological resilience in the face of terrorism. Psychiatr. Ann. 2004, 33, 627–632.
[91]
Masten, A. Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity. Dev. Psychopathol. 1990, 2, 425–444, doi:10.1017/S0954579400005812.
[92]
Rutter, M. Resilience reconsidered: Conceptual considerations, empirical findings and policy implications. In Handbook of Early Childhood Intervention, 2nd; Shonkoff, J., Meisels, S., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: New York, NY, USA, 2000; pp. 651–682.
[93]
Bonanno, G.; Galea, S.; Bucciareli, A.; Valajov, D. What predicts psychological resilience after a disaster? The role of demographics, resources, and life stress. J. Consult. Psychol. 2007, 75, 671–682, doi:10.1037/0022-006X.75.5.671.
[94]
Rutter, M. Psychosocial resilence and protective mechanisms. Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 2010, 57, 316–331, doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.1987.tb03541.x.
[95]
Wolin, S. The Reslient Self: How Survivors of Troubled Families Rise Above Adversity; Villard Books: New York, NY, USA, 1993.
[96]
Steinberg, A.; Ritzman, R. Resilience and development affective communities. J. Appl. Psychol. 1990, 20, 1746–1765, doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1990.tb01509.x.
[97]
Colavecchio-VanSickler, S. A USF Professor Plans to Add Heat to Robot Rescuers; St. Petersburg Times: St. Petersburg, FL, USA, 2008.
[98]
Kowalski-Trakofler, K.; Barrett, E. Reducing non-contact electric arc injuries: An investigation of behavioral and organizational issues. J. Saf. Res. 2007, 38, 597–608, doi:10.1016/j.jsr.2007.06.004.
[99]
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Mine Families First Resource Reference Manual; Commonwealth of Pennsylvania: Harrisburg, PA, USA, 2008.
[100]
Kowalski, K.; Podlesny, A. The Effects of Disaster on Workers: A Study of Burnout in Investigators of Serious Accidents and Fatalities in the US Mining Industry; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2000.
[101]
Vaught, C.; Mallett, L.; Kowalski, K.; Brnich, M. Workers response to realistic evacuation training. In Proceedings of the International Emergency Management Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, 19–20 January 1997.
[102]
Moch, M.; Fitzgibbons, D. The relationship between absenteeism and production efficiency: An empirical assessment. J. Occup. Psychol. 1985, 58, 39–47, doi:10.1111/j.2044-8325.1985.tb00178.x.
[103]
Hu, T.; Slaysman, K. Health-related economic costs of the three-mile island accident. Soc. Econ. Plann. Sci. 1984, 18, 183–193, doi:10.1016/0038-0121(84)90018-1.
[104]
Tucker, P.; Pfefferbaum, B.; Doughty, D.; Nixon, S. Body handlers after terrorism in Oklahoma City: Predictors of posttraumatic stress and other symptoms. Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 2002, 72, 469–475, doi:10.1037/0002-9432.72.4.469.
[105]
Galea, S.; Resnick, H. Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist attacts in New York city. New Eng. J. Med. 2002, 346, 982–987, doi:10.1056/NEJMsa013404.
[106]
Camm, T.; Girard-Dwyer, J. Economic consequences of mining injuries. In Proceedings of the Society of Mining Engineers Annual Conference, Denver, CO, USA, 22–25 February 2004.
[107]
Navarro, C.; Bass, C. Guidelines for managing employee absence. Benefit. Compensat. Digest 2006, 43, 32–34.
[108]
Yueng-Hsiang, H.; Leamon, T.; Courtney, T.; DeArmond, S.; Chen, P.; Blair, M. Financial decision makers’ views on safety. Prof. Saf. 2009, 54, 36–42.
[109]
Ursano, R.; Fullerton, C.; Vance, K.; Kao, T. Posttraumatic stress disorder and identification in disaster workers. Am. J. Psychiatry 1999, 156, 353–359.
