Damage to articular cartilage can eventually lead to osteoarthritis (OA), a debilitating, degenerative joint disease that affects millions of people around the world. The limited natural healing ability of cartilage and the limitations of currently available therapies make treatment of cartilage defects a challenging clinical issue. Hopes have been raised for the repair of articular cartilage with the help of supportive structures, called scaffolds, created through tissue engineering (TE). Over the past two decades, different designs and fabrication techniques have been investigated for developing TE scaffolds suitable for the construction of transplantable artificial cartilage tissue substitutes. Advances in fabrication technologies now enable the strategic design of scaffolds with complex, biomimetic structures and properties. In particular, scaffolds with hybrid and/or biomimetic zonal designs have recently been developed for cartilage tissue engineering applications. This paper reviews critical aspects of the design of engineered scaffolds for articular cartilage repair as well as the available advanced fabrication techniques. In addition, recent studies on the design of hybrid and zonal scaffolds for use in cartilage tissue repair are highlighted.
References
[1]
Moutos, F.T.; Guilak, F. Composite scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering. J. Biorheol. 2008, 45, 501–512.
[2]
Mow, V.C.; Ratcliffe, A.; Poole, A.R. Cartilage and diarthrodial joints as paradigms for hierarchical materials and structures. Biomaterials 1992, 13, 67–97, doi:10.1016/0142-9612(92)90001-5.
[3]
Haleem, A.M.; Chu, C.R. Advances in tissue engineering techniques for articular cartilage repair. Oper. Tech. Orthop. 2010, 20, 76–89, doi:10.1053/j.oto.2009.10.004.
[4]
Gillogly, S.D.; Voightm, M.; Blackburn, T. Treatment of articular cartilage defects of the knee with autologous chondrocyte implantation. J. Orthop. Sports Phys. Ther. 1998, 28, 241–251.
[5]
Athanasiou, K.A.; Darling, E.M.; Hu, J.C. Articular cartilage tissue engineering. In Synthesis Lectures on Tissue Engineering, 1st; Athanasiou K.A. Leach, J.K., Ed.; Morgan & Claypool: San Rafael, CA, USA, 2009; pp. 1–182.
[6]
Alford, J.W.; Cole, B.J. Cartilage restoration, Part 2: Techniques, outcomes, and future directions. Am. J. Sports Med. 2005, 33, 443–460, doi:10.1177/0363546505274578.
[7]
Lavik, E.; Langer, R. Tissue engineering: Current state and perspectives. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2004, 65, 1–8.
Niklason, L.E.; Langer, R. Prospects for organ and tissue replacement. JAMA 2001, 285, 573–576, doi:10.1001/jama.285.5.573.
[10]
Goldberg, M.; Langer, R.; Jia, X. Nanostructured materials for applications in drug delivery and tissue engineering. J. Biomater. Sci. Polym. Ed. 2007, 18, 241–268, doi:10.1163/156856207779996931.
Ateshian, G.A.; Lai, W.M.; Zhu, W.B.; Mow, V.C. An asymptotic solution for the contact of two biphasic cartilage layers. J. Biomech. 1994, 27, 1347–1360, doi:10.1016/0021-9290(94)90044-2.
[17]
Buckwalter, J.A.; Mow, V.C.; Ratcliffe, A. Restoration of injured or degenerated articular cartilage. J. Am. Acad. Orthop. Surg. 1994, 2, 192–201.
[18]
Buckwalter, J.A.; Hunziker, E.B.; Rosenberg, L.C.; Coutts, R.D.; Adams, M.E.; Eyre, D.R. Articular cartilage. Composition and structure. In Injury and Repair of the Musculoskeletal Soft Tissues; Woo, S.L.-Y., Buckwalter, J.A., Eds.; The American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons: Park Ridge, IL, USA, 1988; pp. 405–425.
[19]
Meachim, G.; Sheffield, S.R. Surface ultrastructure of mature adult human articular cartilage. J. Bone Joint. Surg. Br. 1969, 51, 529–539.
[20]
Muir, H.; Bullough, P.; Maroudas, A. The distribution of collagen in human articular cartilage with some of its physiological implications. J. Bone Joint. Surg. Br. 1970, 52, 554–563.
[21]
Klein, T.J.; Malda, J.; Sah, R.L.; Hutmacher, D.W. Tissue engineering of articular cartilage with biomimetic zones. Tissue Eng. Part B 2009, 15, 143–157, doi:10.1089/ten.teb.2008.0563.
[22]
Huang, C.Y.; Stankiewicz, A.; Ateshian, G.A.; Mow, V.C. Anisotropy, inhomogeneity, and tension-compression nonlinearity of human glenohumeral cartilage in finite deformation. J. Biomech. 2005, 38, 799–809.
[23]
Venn, M.; Maroudas, A. Chemical composition and swelling of normal and osteoarthrotic femoral head cartilage. I. Chemical composition. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 1977, 36, 121–129.
[24]
Eggli, P.S.; Hunziker, E.B.; Schenk, R.K. Quantitation of structural features characterizing weight- and less- weight-bearing regions in articular cartilage: A stereological analysis of medial femoral condyles in young adult rabbits. Anat. Rec. 1988, 222, 217–227, doi:10.1002/ar.1092220302.
[25]
Radin, E.L.; Ehrlich, M.G.; Chernack, R.; Abernethy, P.; Paul, I.L.; Rose, R.M. Effect of repetitive impulsive loading on the knee joints of rabbits. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 1978, 131, 288–293.
[26]
Brittberg, M.; Lindahl, A.; Nilsson, A.; Ohlsson, C.; Isaksson, O.; Peterson, L. Treatment of deep cartilage defects in the knee with autologous chondrocyte transplantation. N. Engl. J. Med. 1994, 331, 889–995.
[27]
Bi, X.; Li, G.; Doty, S.B.; Camacho, N.P. A novel method for determination of collagen orientation in cartilage by fourier transform infrared imaging spectroscopy (FT-IRIS). Osteoarth. Cart. 2005, 13, 1050–1058.
Horas, U.; Pelinkovic, D.; Herr, G.; Aigner, T.; Schnettler, R. Autologous chondrocyte implantation and osteochondral cylinder transplantation in cartilage repair of the knee joint: A prospective, comparative trial. J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. 2003, 85, 185–192.
[30]
Roberts, S.; Menage, J.; Sandell, L.J.; Evans, E.H.; Richardson, J.B. Immunohistochemical study of collagen types I and II and procollagen IIa in human cartilage repair tissue following autologous chondrocyte implantation. Knee 2009, 16, 398–404, doi:10.1016/j.knee.2009.02.004.
[31]
Osteotomy of the knee. AAOS (American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons) Website. Available online: http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00591 (accessed on 26 October 2012).
[32]
Hutmacher, D.; Woodfield, T.; Dalton, P.D.; Lewis, J.A. Scaffold design and fabrication. In Tissue Engineering; van Blitterswijk, C., Thomsen, P., Hubbell, J., Cancedda, R., de Bruijn, J., Lindahl, A., Sohier, J., Williams, D.F., Eds.; Elsevier Academic Press: London, UK, 2008; pp. 403–454.
[33]
Stoop, R. Smart biomaterials for tissue engineering of cartilage injury. Int. J. Care Injured 2008, 39, 77–87.
[34]
Li, W.J.; Laurencin, C.T.; Caterson, E.J.; Tuan, R.S.; Ko, F.K. Electrospun nanofibrous structure: a novel scaffold for tissue engineering. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 2002, 60, 613–621, doi:10.1002/jbm.10167.
[35]
Sechriest, V.; Miao, Y.; Niyibizi, C.; Westerhausen-Larson, A.; Matthew, H.; Evans, C.H.; Fu, F.H.; Suh, J.K. GAG-augmented polysaccharide hydrogel: A novel biocompatible and biodegradable material to support chondrogenesis. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 2000, 49, 534–541, doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-4636(20000315)49:4<534::AID-JBM12>3.0.CO;2-#.
[36]
Gibas, I.; Janik, H. Review: Synthetic polymer hydrogels for biomedical applications. Chem. Chem. Technol. 2010, 4, 297–304.
[37]
Lin, Y.J.; Yen, C.N.; Hu, Y.C.; Wu, Y.C.; Liao, C.J.; Chu, I.M. Chondrocytes culture in three-dimensional porous alginate scaffolds enhanced cell proliferation, matrix synthesis and gene expression. J. Biomed. Mater. Res.Part A 2009, 88, 23–33.
[38]
Perka, C.; Schultz, O.; Spitzer, R.; Lindenhayn, K. The influence of transforming growth factor beta1 on mesenchymal cell repair of full-thickness cartilage defects. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 2000, 52, 543–552, doi:10.1002/1097-4636(20001205)52:3<543::AID-JBM13>3.0.CO;2-2.
[39]
Mouw, J.K.; Case, N.D.; Guldberg, R.E.; Plaas, A.H.; Levenston, M.E. Variations in matrix composition and gag fine structure among scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering. Osteoarth. Cart. 2005, 13, 828–836, doi:10.1016/j.joca.2005.04.020.
[40]
Rahfoth, B.; Weisser, J.; Sternkopf, F.; Aigner, T.; von der Mark, K.; Brauer, R. Transplantation of allograft chondrocytes embedded in agarose gel into cartilage defects of rabbits. Osteoarth. Cart. 1996, 6, 50–65.
[41]
Reddy, N.; Yang, Y. Potential of plant proteins for medical applications. Trends Biotechnol. 2011, 29, 490–498, doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2011.05.003.
[42]
Lee, K.Y.; Rowley, J.; Moy, E.; Bouhadir, K.H.; Mooney, D.J. Controlling mechanical and swelling properties of alginate hydrogels independently by cross-linker type and cross-linking density. Macromolecules 2000, 33, 4291–4294.
Bryant, S.J.; Anseth, K.S. Hydrogel properties influence ECM production by chondrocytes PHotoencapsulated in poly (ethylene glycol) hydrogels. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 2002, 59, 63–72, doi:10.1002/jbm.1217.
[45]
Balakrishnan, B.; Banerjee, R. Biopolymer-based hydrogels for cartilage tissue engineering. Chem. Rev. 2011, 111, 4453–4474, doi:10.1021/cr100123h.
[46]
Moutos, F.T. Biomimetic Composite Scaffold for the Functional Tissue Engineering of Articular Cartilage. Ph.D. thesis, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA, 2009.
[47]
Kemppainen, J.M.; Hollister, S.J. Tailoring the mechanical properties of 3D-designed poly(glycerol sebacate) scaffolds for cartilage applications. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 2010, 94, 9–18.
[48]
Hutmacher, D.W. Scaffolds in tissue engineering bone and cartilage. Biomaterials 2000, 21, 2529–2543, doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(00)00121-6.
[49]
Yang, Z.; Wu, Y.; Li, C.; Zhang, T.; Zou, Y.; Hui, J.H.; Ge, Z.; Lee, E.H. Improved mesenchymal stem cells attachment and in vitro cartilage tissue formation on chitosan-modified poly(L-lactide-co-epsilon-caprolactone) scaffold. Tissue Eng. Part A. 2012, 18, 242–251.
[50]
Ma, Z.; Gao, C.; Gong, Y.; Shen, J. Cartilage tissue engineering PLLA scaffold with surface immobilized collagen and basic fibroblast growth factor. Biomaterials 2005, 26, 1253–1259, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2004.04.031.
[51]
Bhati, R.S.; Mukherjee, D.P.; McCarthy, K.J.; Rogers, H.S.; Smith, D.F.; Shalaby, S.W. The growth of chondrocytes into a fibronectin-coated biodegradable scaffold. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 2001, 56, 74–82, doi:10.1002/1097-4636(200107)56:1<74::AID-JBM1070>3.0.CO;2-M.
[52]
Solchaga, L.A.; Gao, J.; Dennis, J.E.; Awadallah, A.; Lundberg, M.; Caplan, A.I.; Goldberg, V.M. Treatment of osteochondral defects with autologous bone marrow in a hyaluronan-based delivery vehicle. Tissue Eng. 2002, 8, 333–347, doi:10.1089/107632702753725085.
[53]
Puppi, D.; Chiellini, F.; Piras, A.M.; Chiellini, E. Polymeric materials for bone and cartilage repair. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2010, 35, 403–440, doi:10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2010.01.006.
[54]
Yang, Q.; Peng, J.; Guo, Q.; Huang, J.; Zhang, L.; Yao, J.; Yang, F.; Wang, S.; Xu, W.; Wang, A.; Lu, S. A cartilage ECM-derived 3-D porous acellular matrix scaffold for in vivo cartilage tissue engineering with PKH26-labeled chondrogenic bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells. Biomaterials 2008, 29, 2378–2387, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.01.037.
[55]
Yang, Z.; Shi, Y.; Wei, X.; He, J.; Yang, S.; Dickson, G.; Tang, J.; Xiang, J.; Song, C.; Li, G. Fabrication and repair of cartilage defects with a novel acellular cartilage matrix scaffold. Tissue Eng. Part C 2010, 16, 865–876, doi:10.1089/ten.tec.2009.0444.
[56]
Elder, B.D.; Eleswarapu, S.V.; Athanasiou, K.A. Extraction Techniques for the decellularization of tissue engineered articular cartilage constructs. Biomaterials 2009, 30, 3749–3756, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2009.03.050.
[57]
Malda, J.; Woodfield, T.B.F.; van der Vloodta, F.; Wilsond, C.; Martensc, D.E.; Tramperc, J.; van Blitterswijk, C.A.; Rieslea, J. The effect of PEGT/PBT scaffold architecture on the composition of tissue engineered cartilage. Biomaterials 2005, 26, 63–72, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2004.02.046.
[58]
Hwang, N.S.; Kim, M.S.; Sampattavanich, S.; Baek, J.H.; Zhang, Z.; Elisseeff, J. Effects of three-dimensional culture and growth factors on the chondrogenic differentiation of murine embryonic stem cells. Stem Cells 2006, 24, 284–291.
[59]
Liu, H.; Lin, J.; Roy, K. Effect of 3D scaffold and dynamic culture condition on the global gene expression profile of mouse embryonic stem cells. Biomaterials 2006, 27, 5978–5989, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2006.05.053.
Woodfield, T.B.F.; van Blitterswijk, C.A.; de Wijn, J.; Sims, T.J.; Hollander, A.P.; Riesle, J. Polymer scaffold fabricated with pore-size gradient as a model for studying the zonal organization within tissue-engineered cartilage constructs. Tissue Eng. 2005, 11, 1297–1311, doi:10.1089/ten.2005.11.1297.
[62]
Woodfield, T.B.F.; Bezemer, J.M.; Pieper, J.S.; van Blitterswijk, C.A.; Riesle, J. Scaffolds for tissue engineering of cartilage. Crit. Rev. Euk. Gene Exp. 2002, 12, 207–235.
Murphy, W.L.; Dennis, R.G.; Kileny, J.L.; Mooney, D.J. Salt fusion: An approach to improve pore interconnectivity within tissue engineering scaffolds. Tissue Eng. 2002, 8, 43–52, doi:10.1089/107632702753503045.
[65]
Nehrer, S.; Breinan, H.A.; Ramappa, A.; Young, G.; Shortkroff, S.; Louie, L.K.; Sledge, C.B.; Yannas, I.V.; Spector, M. Matrix collagen type and pore size influence behaviour of seeded canine chondrocytes. Biomaterials 1997, 18, 769–776.
[66]
LiVecchi, A.B.; Tombes, R.M.; LaBerge, M. In vitro chondrocyte collagen deposition within porous HDPE: Substrate microstructure and wettability effects. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 1994, 28, 839–850.
[67]
Bhardwaj, T.; Pilliar, R.M.; Grynpas, M.D.; Kandel, R.A. Effect of material geometry on cartilagenous tissue formation in vitro. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 2001, 57, 190–199, doi:10.1002/1097-4636(200111)57:2<190::AID-JBM1158>3.0.CO;2-J.
[68]
Silva, M.M.; Cyster, L.A.; Barry, J.J.; Yang, X.B.; Oreffo, R.O.; Grant, D.M.; Scotchford, C.A.; Howdle, S.M.; Shakesheff, K.M.; Rose, F.R. The effect of anisotropic architecture on cell and tissue infiltration into tissue engineering scaffolds. Biomaterials 2006, 27, 5909–5917, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2006.08.010.
[69]
El-Ayoubi, R.; Degrandpre, C.; Diraddo, R.; Yousef, A.M. design and dynamic culture of 3D-scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering. J. Biomater. Appl. 2011, 25, 429–444, doi:10.1177/0885328209355332.
[70]
Yamane, S.; Iwasaki, N.; Kasahara, Y.; Harada, K.; Majima, T.; Monde, K.; Nishimura, S.; Minami, A. effect of pore size on in vitro cartilage formation using chitosan-based hyaluronic acid hybrid polymer fibers. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A 2007, 81A, 586–593.
[71]
Lien, S.M.; Ko, L.Y.; Huang, T.J. Effect of pore size on ecm secretion and cell growth in gelatin scaffold for articular cartilage tissue engineering. Acta Biomater. 2009, 5, 670–679, doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2008.09.020.
[72]
Grad, S.; Zhou, L.; Gogolewski, S.; Alini, M. Chondrocytes seeded onto poly (L/DL-Lactide) 80%/20% porous scaffolds: A biochemical evaluation. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A 2003, 66, 571–579.
[73]
Lefebvre, V.; Peeters-Joris, C.; Vaes, G. Production of collagens, collagenase and collagenase inhibitor during the dedifferentiation of articular chondrocytes by serial subcultures. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 1990, 1051, 266–275, doi:10.1016/0167-4889(90)90132-W.
[74]
Rodriguez, A.M.; Vacanti, C.A. Tissue engineering of cartilage. In Frontiers in Tissue Engineering; Patrick, J.C.W., Mikos, A.G., McIntire, L.V., Eds.; Elsevier Scienc: New York, NY, USA, 1998; pp. 400–411.
[75]
Li, W.J.; Jiang, Y.J.; Tuan, R.S. Chondrocyte phenotype in engineered fibrous matrix is regulated by fiber size. Tissue Eng. 2006, 12, 1775–1785.
[76]
Spiteri, C.G.; Pilliar, R.M.; Kandel, R.A. Substrate porosity enhances chondrocyte attachment, spreading, and cartilage tissue formation in vitro. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A 2006, 78, 677–683.
[77]
Gerecht, S.; Townsend, S.A.; Pressler, H.; Zhu, H.; Nijst, C.L.; Bruggeman, J.P.; Nichol, J.W.; Langer, R. A porous photocurable elastomer for cell encapsulation and culture. Biomaterials 2007, 28, 4826–4835, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2007.07.039.
[78]
El-Ayoubi, R.; Eliopoulus, N.; Diraddo, R.; Galipeau, J.; Yousefi, A.M. Design and fabrication of 3D porous scaffolds to facilitate cell-based gene therapy. Tissue Eng. Part A 2008, 14, 1037–1048, doi:10.1089/ten.tea.2006.0418.
Sahoo, S.; Cho-Hong, J.G.; Siew-Lok, T. Development of hybrid polymer scaffolds for potential applications in ligament and tendon tissue engineering. Biomed Mater. 2007, 2, 169–173.
[81]
Cheng, Z.; Teoh, S.H. Surface modification of ultra thin poly (epsilon-caprolactone) films using acrylic acid and collagen. Biomaterials 2004, 25, 1991–2001, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2003.08.038.
[82]
Miot, S.; Woodfield, T.B.F.; Daniels, A.U.; Suetterlin, R.; Peterschmitt, I.; Heberer, M.; van Blitterswijk, C.A.; Riesle, J.; Martin, I. Effects of scaffold composition and architecture on human nasal chondrocyte redifferentiation and cartilaginous matrix deposition. Biomaterials 2005, 26, 2479–2489, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2004.06.048.
[83]
Freed, L.E.; Hollander, A.P.; Martin, I.; Barry, J.R.; Langer, R.; Vunjak-Novakovic, G. Chondrogenesis in a cell–polymer–bioreactor system. Exp. Cell Res. 1998, 240, 58–65, doi:10.1006/excr.1998.4010.
[84]
Obradovic, B.; Meldon, J.H.; Freed, L.E.; Vunjak-Novakovic, G. Glycosaminoglycan deposition in engineered cartilage: Experiments and mathematical model. AIChE J 2000, 46, 1860–1871.
[85]
Woodfield, T.B.F.; Malda, J.; de Wijn, J.; Peters, F.; Riesle, J.; van Blitterswijk, C.A. Design of porous scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering using a three-dimensional fiber-deposition technique. Biomaterials 2004, 25, 4149–4161.
Fedorovich, N.E.; Schuurman, W.; Wijnberg, H.M.; Prins, H.J.; van Weeren, P.R.; Malda, J.; Alblas, J.; Dhert, W.J. Biofabrication of osteochondral tissue equivalents by printing topologically defined, cell-laden hydrogel scaffolds. Tissue Eng. Part C 2012, 18, 33–44.
[89]
Guillotin, B.; Souquet, A.; Catros, S.; Duocastella, M.; Pippenger, B.; Bellance, S.; Bareille, R.; Rémy, M.; Bordenave, L.; Amédée, J.; et al. Laser assisted bioprinting of engineered tissue with high cell density and microscale organization. Biomaterials 2010, 31, 7250–7256.
[90]
Cohen, D.L.; Malone, E.; Lipson, H.; Bonassar, L.J. Direct freeform fabrication of seeded hydrogels in arbitrary geometries. Tissue Eng. 2006, 12, 1325–1335, doi:10.1089/ten.2006.12.1325.
Chung, C.; Mesa, J.; Randolph, M.A.; Yaremchuk, M.; Burdick, J.A. Influence of gel properties on neocartilage formation by auricular chondrocytes photoencapsulated in hyaluronic acid networks. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 2006, 77, 518–525.
Bryant, S.J.; Anseth, K.S. Controlling the spatial distribution of ecm components in degradable PEG hydrogels for tissue engineering cartilage. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 2003, 64A, 70–79, doi:10.1002/jbm.a.10319.
[95]
Bryant, S.J.; Durand, K.L.; Anseth, K.S. Manipulations in hydrogel chemistry control photoencapsulated chondrocyte behavior and their extracellular matrix production. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 2003, 67A, 1430–1436, doi:10.1002/jbm.a.20003.
Nicodemus, G.D.; Bryant, S.J. Cell encapsulation in biodegradable hydrogels for tissue engineering applications. Tissue Eng. Part B Rev. 2008, 14, 149–165, doi:10.1089/ten.teb.2007.0332.
[98]
Jeong, C.G.; Hollister, S.J. A comparison of the influence of material on in vitro cartilage tissue engineering with PCL, PGS, and POC 3D scaffold architecture seeded with chondrocytes. Biomaterials 2010, 31, 4304–4312, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.01.145.
[99]
Annabi, N.; Nichol, J.W.; Zhong, X.; Ji, C.; Koshy, S.; Khademhosseini, A.; Dehghani, F. Controlling the porosity and microarchitecture of hydrogels for tissue engineering. Tissue Eng. Part B 2010, 16, 371–383, doi:10.1089/ten.teb.2009.0639.
[100]
Mohan, N.; Nair, P.D. Polyvinyl alcohol-poly (caprolactone) semi IPN scaffold with implication for cartilage tissue engineering. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B Appl. Biomater. 2007, 84, 584–594.
[101]
Park, J.S.; Woo, D.G.; Sun, B.K.; Chung, H.-M.; Im, S.J.; Choi, Y.M.; Park, K.; Huh, K.M.; Park, K.-H. In vitro and in vivo test of PEG/PCL-based hydrogel scaffold for cell delivery application. J. Control Release 2007, 124, 51–59, doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2007.08.030.
[102]
Suh, S.W.; Shin, J.Y.; Kim, J.; Kim, J.; Beak, C.H.; Kim, D.I.; Kim, H.; Jeon, S.S.; Choo, I.W. Effect of different particles on cell proliferation in polymer scaffolds using a solvent-casting and particulate leaching technique. ASAIO J. 2002, 48, 460–464, doi:10.1097/00002480-200209000-00003.
[103]
Kemppainen, J.M.; Hollister, S.J. Differential effects of designed scaffold permeability on chondrogenesis by chondrocytes and bone marrow stromal cells. Biomaterials 2010, 31, 279–287, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2009.09.041.
Pham, Q.P.; Sharma, U.; Mikos, A.G. Electrospun poly (e-caprolactone) microfiber and multilayer nanofiber- microfiber scaffolds: Characterization of scaffolds and measurement of cellular infiltration. Biomacromolecules 2006, 7, 2796–2805.
[106]
Matthews, J.A.; Boland, E.D.; Wnek, G.E.; Simpson, D.G.; Bowlin, G.L. Electrospinning of collagen type II: A feasibility study. J. Bioact. Compat. Pol. 2003, 18, 125–134, doi:10.1177/0883911503018002003.
[107]
Komistek, R.D.; Kane, T.R.; Mahfouz, M.; Ochoa, J.A.; Dennis, D.A. Knee mechanics: A review of past and present techniques to determine in vivo loads. J. Biomech. 2005, 38, 215–228, doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2004.02.041.
[108]
Natoli, R.M.; Athanasiou, K.A. P188 reduces cell death and IGF-I reduces GAG release following single-impact loading of articular cartilage. J. Biomech. Eng. 2008, 130, doi:10.1115/1.2939368.
[109]
Treppo, S.; Koepp, H.; Quan, E.C.; Cole, A.A.; Kuettner, K.E.; Grodzinsky, A.J. Comparison of biomechanical and biochemical properties of cartilage from human knee and ankle pairs. J. Orthop. Res. 2000, 18, 739–748, doi:10.1002/jor.1100180510.
[110]
Tanaka, Y.; Yamaoka, H.; Nishizawa, S.; Nagata, S.; Ogasawara, T.; Asawa, Y.; Fujihara, Y.; Takato, T.; Hoshi, K. The optimization of porous polymeric scaffolds for chondrocyte/atelocollagen based tissue-engineered cartilage. Biomaterials 2010, 31, 4506–4516, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.02.028.
[111]
Xie, J.; Ihara, M.; Jung, Y.; Kwonk, K.; Kim, S.H.; Kim, Y.H.; Mastuda, T. Mechano-active scaffold design based on microporous poly(L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) for articular cartilage tissue engineering: Dependence of porosity on compression force-applied mechanical behaviors. Tissue Eng. 2006, 12, 449–458, doi:10.1089/ten.2006.12.449.
[112]
Moroni, L.; de Wijn, J.R.; van Blitterswijk, C.A. 3D fiber-deposited scaffolds for tissue engineering: Influence of pores geometry and architecture on dynamic mechanical properties. Biomaterials 2006, 27, 974–985, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2005.07.023.
[113]
Jeong, C.G.; Hollister, S.J. Mechanical and biochemical assessments of three-dimensional poly(1,8-Octanediol-co-Citrate) scaffold pore shape and permeability effects on in vitro chondrogenesis using primary chondrocytes. Tissue Eng. Part A. 2010, 16, 3759–3768, doi:10.1089/ten.tea.2010.0103.
[114]
Chen, G.; Sato, T.; Ushida, T.; Hirochika, R.; Shirasaki, Y.; Ochiai, N.; Tateishi, T. The use of a novel PLGA fiber/collagen composite web as a scaffold for engineering of articular cartilage tissue with adjustable thickness. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 2003, 67, 1170–1180.
[115]
Waldman, S.D.; Grynpas, M.D.; Pilliar, R.M.; Kandel, R.A. The use of specific chondrocyte populations to modulate the properties of tissue-engineered cartilage. J. Orthop. Res. 2003, 21, 132–138, doi:10.1016/S0736-0266(02)00105-5.
[116]
Liao, E.; Yaszemski, M.; Krebsbach, P.; Hollister, S. Tissue-engineered cartilage constructs using composite hyaluronic acid/collagen I hydrogels and designed poly(propylene fumarate) scaffolds. Tissue Eng. 2007, 13, 537–550, doi:10.1089/ten.2006.0117.
[117]
Liao, E.E. Enhancement of Chondrogenesis by Directing Cellular Condensation through Chondroinductive Microenvironments and Designed Solid Freeform Fabricated Scaffolds. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 2007.
[118]
Chung, T.W.; Yang, J.; Akaike, T.; Cho, K.Y.; Nah, J.W.; Kim, S.I.; Cho, C.S. Preparation of alginate/galactosylated chitosan scaffold for hepatocyte attachment. Biomaterials 2002, 23, 2827–2834.
[119]
Chuang, W.Y.; Young, T.H.; Yao, C.H.; Chiu, W.Y. Properties of the poly (vinyl alcohol)/chitosan blend and its effect on the culture of fibroblast in vitro. Biomaterials 1999, 20, 1479–1487, doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(99)00054-X.
[120]
Zhang, M.; Li, X.H.; Gong, Y.D.; Zhao, N.M.; Zhang, X.F. Properties and biocompatibility of chitosan films modified by blending with PEG. Biomaterials 2002, 23, 2641–2648.
[121]
Bryant, S.J.; Davis-Arehart, K.A.; Luo, N.; Shoemaker, R.K.; Arthur, J.A.; Anseth, K.S. Synthesis and characterization of photopolymerized multifunctional hydrogels: Water soluble poly (vinyl alcohol) and chondroitin sulfate macromers for chondrocyte encapsulation. Macromolecules 2004, 37, 6726–6733.
[122]
Kuo, Y.C.; Lin, C.Y. Effect of Genipin-crosslinked chitin-chitosan scaffolds with hydroxyapatite modifications on the cultivation of bovine knee chrondrocytes. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2006, 95, 132–137, doi:10.1002/bit.21007.
[123]
Bryant, S.J.; Bender, R.J.; Durand, K.L.; Anseth, K.S. Encapsulating chondrocytes in degrading PEG hydrogels with high modulus: Engineering gel structural changes to facilitate cartilaginous tissue production. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2004, 86, 747–755, doi:10.1002/bit.20160.
[124]
Fedorovich, N.E.; Alblas, J.; de Wijn, J.R.; Hennink, W.E.; Verbout, A.J.; Dhert, W.J.A. Hydrogels as extracellular matrices for skeletal tissue engineering: state-of-the-art and novel application in organ printing. Tissue Eng. 2007, 13, 1905–1925, doi:10.1089/ten.2006.0175.
[125]
Chen, C.S.; Ingber, D.E. Tensegrity and mechanoregulation: From skeleton to cytoskeleton. Osteoarth. Cart. 1999, 7, 81–94, doi:10.1053/joca.1998.0164.
[126]
Martin, I.; Obradovic, B.; Treppo, S.; Grodzinsky, A.J.; Langer, R.; Freed, L.E.; Vunjak-Novakovic, G. Modulation of the mechanical properties of tissue engineered cartilage. Biorheology 2000, 37, 141–147.
[127]
Gratz, K.R.; Wong, V.W.; Chen, A.C.; Fortier, L.A.; Nixon, A.J.; Sah, R.L. Biomechanical assessment of tissue retrieved after in vivo cartilage defect repair: Tensile modulus of repair tissue and integration with host cartilage. J. Biomech. 2006, 39, 138–146.
[128]
Natoli, R.M.; Responte, D.J.; Lu, B.Y.; Athanasiou, K.A. Effects of multiple chondroitinase ABC applications on tissue engineered articular cartilage. J. Orthop. Res. 2009, 27, 949–956, doi:10.1002/jor.20821.
[129]
Natoli, R.M.; Revell, C.M.; Athanasiou, K.A. Chondroitinase ABC treatment results in greater tensile properties of self-assembled tissue-engineered articular cartilage. Tissue Eng. Part A 2009, 15, 3119–3128, doi:10.1089/ten.tea.2008.0478.
[130]
Hoemann, C.D.; Sun, J.; Legare, A.; McKee, M.D.; Buschmann, M.D. Tissue engineering of cartilage using an injectable and adhesive chitosan-based cell-delivery vehicle. Osteoarth. Cart. 2005, 13, 318–329, doi:10.1016/j.joca.2004.12.001.
Liebschner, M.; Bucklen, B.; Wettergreen, M. Mechanical aspects of tissue engineering. Semin. Plast. Surg. 2005, 19, 217–228, doi:10.1055/s-2005-919717.
[133]
Little, C.J.; Bawolin, N.K.; Chen, X. Mechanical properties of natural cartilage and tissue-engineered constructs. Tissue Eng. Part B Rev. 2011, 17, 213–227.
[134]
Akizuki, S.; Mow, V.C.; Müller, F.J.; Pita, J.C.; Howell, D.S.; Manicour, D.H. Tensile properties of human knee joint cartilage: I. Influence of ionic conditions, weight bearing, and fibrillation on the tensile modulus. J. Orthop. Res. 1986, 4, 379–392.
[135]
Setton, L.A.; Mow, V.C.; Müller, F.J.; Pita, J.C.; Howell, D.S. Mechanical properties of canine articular cartilage are significantly altered following transection of the anterior cruciate ligament. J. Orthop. Res. 1994, 12, 451–463, doi:10.1002/jor.1100120402.
[136]
Elliott, D.M.; Guilak, F.; Vail, T.P.; Wang, J.Y.; Setton, L.A. Tensile properties of articular cartilage are altered by meniscectomy in a canine model of osteoarthritis. J. Orthop. Res. 1999, 17, 503–508.
[137]
Sakkers, R.J.B.; de Wijn, J.R.; Dalmeyer, R.A.J.; Brand, R.; van Blitterswijk, C.A. Evaluation of copolymers of polyethylene oxide and poly buthylene terephthalate (polyactives): Mechanical behaviour. J. Mater. Sci. 1998, 9, 375–379, doi:10.1023/A:1013227428530.
[138]
Temenoff, J.S.; Athanasiou, K.A.; Lebaron, R.G.; Mikos, A.G. Effect of poly (ethylene glycol) molecular weight on tensile and swelling properties of oligo (poly (ethylene glycol) fumarate) hydrogels for cartilage tissue engineering. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 2002, 59, 429–437, doi:10.1002/jbm.1259.
[139]
Kempson, G.E.; Muir, H.; Pollard, C.; Tuke, M. The tensile properties of the cartilage of human femoral condyles related to the content of collagen and glycosaminoglycans. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1973, 297, 456–472, doi:10.1016/0304-4165(73)90093-7.
[140]
Bader, D.L.; Kempson, G.E.; Barrett, A.J.; Webb, W. The effects of leucocyte elastase on the mechanical properties of adult human articular cartilage in tension. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1981, 677, 103–108, doi:10.1016/0304-4165(81)90150-1.
[141]
Mow, V.C.; Guo, X. Mechano-electrochemical properties of articular cartilage: Their inhomogeneities and anisotropies. Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 2002, 4, 175–209, doi:10.1146/annurev.bioeng.4.110701.120309.
[142]
Mow, V.C.; Gibbs, M.C.; Lai, W.M.; Zhu, W.B.; Athanasiou, K.A. Biphasic indentation of articular cartilage—II. A numerical algorithm and an experimental Study. J. Biomech. 1989, 22, 853–861, doi:10.1016/0021-9290(89)90069-9.
[143]
Jurvelin, J.S.; Buschmann, M.D.; Hunziker, E.B. Optical and mechanical determination of poisson’s ratio of adult bovine humeral articular cartilage. J. Biomech. 1997, 30, 235–241.
[144]
Zhu, W.; Mow, V.C.; Koob, T.J.; Eyre, D.R. Viscoelastic shear properties of articular cartilage and the effects of glycosidase treatments. J. Orthop. Res. 1993, 11, 771–781, doi:10.1002/jor.1100110602.
[145]
LeRoux, M.A.; Guilak, F.; Setton, L.A. Compressive and shear properties of alginate gel: Effects of sodium ions and alginate concentration. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 1999, 47, 46–53, doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-4636(199910)47:1<46::AID-JBM6>3.0.CO;2-N.
Martins, A.M,; Pham, Q.P.; Malafaya, P.B.; Raphael, R.M.; Kasper, F.K.; Reis, R.L.; Mikos, A.G. Natural stimulus responsive scaffolds/cells for bone tissue engineering: Influence of lysozyme upon scaffold degradation and osteogenic differentiation of cultured marrow stromal cells induced by CaP coatings. Tissue Eng. Part A. 2009, 15, 1953–1963.
[148]
Jeong, C.G.; Hollister, S.J. Mechanical, permeability, and degradation properties of 3D designed poly (1,8 octanediol-co-citrate) scaffolds for soft tissue engineering. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B Appl. Biomater. 2010, 93, 141–149.
[149]
Zhang, H.; Neau, S.H. In vitro degradation of chitosan by a commercial enzyme preparation: effect of molecular weight and degree of deacetylation. Biomaterials 2001, 22, 1653–1658, doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(00)00326-4.
[150]
Salinas, C.N.; Anseth, K.S. The influence of the RGD peptide motif and its contextual presentation in PEG gels on human mesenchymal stem cell viability. J. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med. 2008, 2, 296–304, doi:10.1002/term.95.
Chung, C.; Beecham, M.; Mauck, R.L.; Burdick, J.A. The influence of degradation characteristics of hyaluronic acid hydrogels on in vitro neocartilage formation by mesenchymal stem cells. Biomaterials 2009, 30, 4287–4296, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2009.04.040.
Wu, L.B.; Ding, J.D. In vitro degradation of three-dimensional porous poly (D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) scaffolds for tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2004, 25, 5821–5830, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2004.01.038.
[155]
Kofron, M.D.; Griswold, A.; Kumbar, S.G.; Martin, K.; Wen, X.; Laurencin, C.T. The implications of polymer selection in regenerative medicine: A comparison of amorphous and semi-crystalline polymer for tissue regeneration. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2009, 19, 1351–1359.
[156]
Pan, Z.; Ding, J. Engineering and regenerative medicine poly (lactide-co-glycolide) porous scaffolds for tissue. Interface Focus 2012, 2, 366–377, doi:10.1098/rsfs.2011.0123.
[157]
Yang, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Tang, G.; Li, H.; Yuan, X.; Fan, Y. In vitro degradation of porous poly (L-lactide-co-glycolide)/b-tricalcium phosphate (PLGA/b-TCP) scaffolds under dynamic and static conditions. Polym. Degrad. Stabil. 2008, 93, 1838–1845, doi:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2008.07.007.
[158]
Yoshioka, T.; Kawazoe, N.; Tateishi, T.; Chen, G. In vitro evaluation of biodegradation of poly (lactic-coglycolic acid) sponges. Biomaterials 2008, 29, 3438–3443.
[159]
Odelius, K.; Hoglund, A.; Kumar, S.; Hakkarainen, M.; Ghosh, A.K.; Bhatnagar, N.; Albertsson, A.-C. Porosity and pore size regulate the degradation product profile of polylactide. Biomacromolecules 2011, 12, 1250–1258, doi:10.1021/bm1015464.
[160]
Wu, L.B.; Ding, J.D. Effects of porosity and pore size on in vitro degradation of three-dimensional porous poly (D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) scaffolds for tissue engineering. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A 2005, 75, 767–777.
[161]
Sawhney, A.S.; Pathak, C.P.; Hubbell, J.A. Bioerodible hydrogels based on photopolymerized poly (ethylene glycol)-co-poly(alpha-hydroxy acid) diacrylate macromers. Macromolecules 1993, 26, 581–587, doi:10.1021/ma00056a005.
[162]
Wang, W.; Li, B.; Li, Y.; Jiang, Y.; Ouyang, H.; Gao, C. In vivo restoration of full-thickness cartilage defects by poly (lactide-co-glycolide) sponges filled with fibrin gel, bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells and dna complexes. Biomaterials 2010, 31, 5953–5965, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.04.029.
[163]
Yu, L.; Zhang, Z.; Zhang, H.; Ding, J. Biodegradability and biocompatibility of thermoreversible hydrogels formed from mixing a sol and a precipitate of block copolymers in water. Biomacromolecules 2010, 11, 2169–2178, doi:10.1021/bm100549q.
[164]
Zhang, Z.; Ni, J.; Chen, L.; Yu, L.; Xu, J.; Ding, J. Biodegradable and thermoreversible PCLA-PEG-PCLA hydrogel as a barrier for prevention of post-operative adhesion. Biomaterials 2011, 32, 4725–4736, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.03.046.
[165]
Edwards, S.L.; Mitchell, W.; Matthews, J.B.; Ingham, E.; Russell, S.J. Design of nonwoven scaffolds structures for tissue engineering of the anterior cruciate ligament. AUTEX Res. J. 2004, 4, 86–94.
[166]
Lu, L.; Mikos, A. The importance of new processing techniques in tissue engineering. MRS Bull. 1996, 21, 28–32.
[167]
Whang, K.; Thomas, C.H.; Healy, K.E.; Nuber, G. A novel method to fabricate bioabsorbable scaffolds. Polymers 1995, 36, 837–842, doi:10.1016/0032-3861(95)93115-3.
[168]
Whang, K.; Tsai, D.C.; Nam, E.K.; Aitken, M.; Sprague, S.M.; Patel, P.K.; Healy, K.E. Ectopic bone formation via rhBMP-2 Delivery from porous bioresorbable polymer scaffolds. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 1998, 42, 491–499, doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-4636(19981215)42:4<491::AID-JBM3>3.0.CO;2-F.
[169]
Sachlos, E.; Czernuszka, J.T. Making tissue engineering scaffolds work. Review: The application of solid freeform fabrication technology to the production of tissue engineering scaffolds. Eur. Cell. Mater. 2003, 5, 29–39.
[170]
Kim, J.; Reneker, D.H. Mechanical properties of composites using ultrafine electrospun fibers. Polym. Comp. 1999, 20, 124–131, doi:10.1002/pc.10340.
[171]
Sittinger, M.; Bujia, J.; Rotter, N.; Reitzel, D.; Minuth, W.W.; Burmester, G.R. Tissue engineering and autologous transplant formation: practical approaches with resorbable biomaterials and new cell culture techniques. Biomaterials 1996, 17, 237–242.
[172]
Soliman, S.; Sant, S.; Nichol, J.W.; Khabiry, M.; Traversa, E.; Khademhosseini, A. Controlling the porosity of fibrous scaffolds by modulating the fiber diameter and packing density. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 2011, 96, 566–574.
[173]
Nerurkar, N.L.; Sen, S.; Baker, B.M.; Elliott, D.M.; Mauck, R.L. Dynamic culture enhances stem cell infiltration and modulates extracellular matrix production on aligned electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds. Acta Biomate. 2011, 7, 485–491, doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2010.08.011.
[174]
Li, W.J.; Mauck, R.L.; Cooper, J.A.; Yuan, X.; Tuan, R.S. Engineering controllable anisotropy in electrospun biodegradable nanofibrous scaffolds for musculoskeletal tissue engineering. J. Biomech. 2007, 40, 1686–1693.
[175]
Dalton, P.D.; Joergensen, N.T.; Groll, J.; Moeller, M. Patterned melt electrospun substrates for tissue engineering. Biomed. Mater. 2008, 3, doi:10.1088/1748-6041/3/3/034109.
[176]
Dalton, P.D.; Klinkhammer, K.; Salber, J.; Klee, D.; M？ller, M. Direct in vitro electrospinning with polymer melts. Biomacromolecules 2006, 7, 686–690, doi:10.1021/bm050777q.
[177]
Moroni, L.; Hendriks, J.A.A.; Schotel, R.; de Wijn, J.R.; van Blitterswijk, C.A. Design of biphasic polymeric 3-Dimensional fiber deposited scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering applications. Tissue Eng. 2007, 13, 361–371, doi:10.1089/ten.2006.0127.
[178]
Shao, X.; Goh, J.C.H.; Hutmacher, D.W.; Lee, E.H.; Zigang, G. Repair of large articular osteochondral defects using hybrid scaffolds and bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells in a rabbit model. Tissue Eng. 2006, 12, 1539–1551, doi:10.1089/ten.2006.12.1539.
[179]
Vozzi, G.; Flaim, C.; Ahluwalia, A.; Bhatia, S. Fabrication of PLGA scaffolds using soft lithography and microsyringe deposition. Biomaterials 2003, 24, 2533–2540.
[180]
Wiria, F.E.; Chua, C.K.; Leong, K.F.; Quah, Z.Y.; Chandrasekaran, M.; Lee, M.W. Improved biocomposite development of poly(vinyl alcohol) and hydroxyapatite for tissue engineering scaffold fabrication using selective laser sintering. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 2008, 19, 989–996, doi:10.1007/s10856-007-3176-5.
[181]
Ramanath, H.S.; Chandrasekaran, M.; Chua, C.K.; Leong, K.F.; Shah, K.D. Melt flow behaviour of poly-ε-caprolactone in fused deposition modeling. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 2008, 19, 2541–2550, doi:10.1007/s10856-007-3203-6.
[182]
Sudarmadji, N.; Tan, J.Y.; Leong, K.F.; Chua, C.K.; Loh, Y.T. Investigation of the mechanical properties and porosity relationships in selective laser-sintered polyhedral for functionally graded scaffolds. Acta Biomater. 2011, 7, 530–537.
[183]
Landers, R.; Mulhaupt, R. Desktop manufacturing of complex objects, prototypes and biomedical scaffolds by means of computer-assisted design combined with computer-guided 3d plotting of polymers and reactive oligomers. Macromolec. Mater. Eng. 2000, 282, 17–21, doi:10.1002/1439-2054(20001001)282:1<17::AID-MAME17>3.0.CO;2-8.
[184]
Sobral, J.M.; Caridade, S.G.; Sousa, R.A.; Mano, J.F.; Reis, R.L. Three-dimensional plotted scaffolds with controlled pore size gradients: Effect of scaffold geometry on mechanical performance and cell seeding efficiency. Acta Biomater. 2011, 7, 1009–1018, doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2010.11.003.
[185]
Maher, P.S.; Keatch, R.P.; Donnelly, K. Characterisation of rapid prototyping techniques for studies in cell behaviour. Rapid Prototyp. J. 2010, 16, 116–123, doi:10.1108/13552541011025834.
[186]
Melchels, F.P.W.; Barradas, A.M.C.; van Blitterswijk, C.A.; de Boer, J.; Feijen, J.; Grijpma, D.W. Effects of the architecture of tissue engineering scaffolds on cell seeding and culturing. Acta Biomater. 2010, 6, 4208–4217, doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2010.06.012.
[187]
Chua, C.K.; Liu, M.J.J.; Chou, S.M. Additive manufacturing-assisted scaffold-based tissue engineering. In Innovative Developments in Virtual and Physical Prototyping, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Advanced Research in Virtual and Rapid Prototyping, Leiria, Portugal, 28 September–1 October 2011; Bartolo, P.J., Ed.; CRC Press: London, UK, 2011.
[188]
Saunders, R.E.; Gough, J.E.; Derby, B. Delivery of human fibroblast cells by piezoelectric drop-on-demand inkjet printing. Biomaterials 2008, 292, 193–203.
[189]
Miller, E.D.; Li, K.; Kanade, T.; Weiss, L.E.; Walker, L.M.; Campbell, P.G. Spatially directed guidance of stem cell population migration by immobilized patterns of growth factors. Biomaterials 2011, 32, 2775–2785.
[190]
Duan, B.; Wang, M.; Zhou, W.Y.; Cheung, W.L.; Li, Z.Y.; Lu, W.W. Three-dimensional nanocomposite scaffolds fabricated via selective laser sintering for bone tissue engineering. Acta Biomater. 2010, 6, 4495–4505, doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2010.06.024.
[191]
Li, X.; Li, D.; Lu, B.; Wang, C. Fabrication of bioceramic scaffolds with pre-designed internal architecture by gel casting and indirect stereolithography techniques. J. Porous Mater. 2008, 15, 667–671, doi:10.1007/s10934-007-9148-9.
[192]
Taboas, J.M.; Maddox, R.D.; Krebsbach, P.H.; Hollister, S.J. Indirect solid free form fabrication of local and global porous, biomimetic and composite 3D polymer-ceramic scaffolds. Biomaterials 2003, 24, 181–194, doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(02)00276-4.
[193]
Vozzi, G. Microsyringe-based deposition of two-dimensional and three-dimensional polymer scaffolds with a well-defined geometry for application to tissue engineering. Tissue Eng. 2002, 8, 1089–1098, doi:10.1089/107632702320934182.
[194]
Landers, R.; Pfister, A.; Hubner, U.; John, H.; Schmelzeisen, R.; Mulhaupt, R. Fabrication of soft tissue engineering scaffolds by means of rapid prototyping techniques. J. Mater. Sci. 2002, 37, 3107–3116, doi:10.1023/A:1016189724389.
[195]
Schuurman, W.; Khristov, V.; Pot, M.W.; van Weeren, P.R.; Dhert, W.J.A.; Malda, J. Bioprinting of hybrid tissue constructs with tailorable mechanical properties. Biofabrication 2011, 3, 021001, doi:10.1088/1758-5082/3/2/021001.
[196]
Shim, J.H.; Kim, J.Y.; Park, M.; Park, J.; Cho, D.W. Development of a hybrid scaffold with synthetic biomaterials and hydrogel using solid freeform fabrication technology. Biofabrication 2011, 3, 034102, doi:10.1088/1758-5082/3/3/034102.
[197]
Martin, I.; Wendt, D.; Heberer, M. The role of bioreactors in tissue engineering. Trends Biotechnol. 2004, 22, 80–86, doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2003.12.001.
[198]
Wendt, D.; Marsano, A.; Jakob, M.; Heberer, M.; Martin, I. Oscillating perfusion of cell suspensions through three-dimensional scaffolds enhances cell seeding efficiency and uniformity. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2003, 84, 205–214, doi:10.1002/bit.10759.
[199]
Davisson, T.; Sah, R.L.; Ratcliffe, A. Perfusion increases cell content and matrix synthesis in chondrocyte three-dimensional cultures. Tissue Eng. 2002, 8, 807–816, doi:10.1089/10763270260424169.
[200]
Vlasea, M.; Shanjani, Y.; Basalah, A.; Toyserkani, E. Additive manufacturing of scaffolds for tissue engineering of bone and cartilage: Review. IJAMS 2011, 13, 123–141.
Baker, B.M.; Gee, A.O.; Metter, R.B.; Nathan, A.S.; Marklein, R.A.; Burdick, J.A. The potential to improve cell infiltration in composite fiber-aligned electrospun scaffolds by the selective removal of sacrificial fibers. Biomaterials 2008, 29, 2348–2358, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.01.032.
[205]
Nam, J.; Huang, Y.; Agarwal, S.; Lannutti, J. Improved cellular infiltration in electrospun fiber via engineered porosity. Tissue Eng. 2007, 13, 2249–2257, doi:10.1089/ten.2006.0306.
[206]
Baker, B.M.; Mauck, R.L. The effect of nanofiber alignment on the maturation of engineered meniscus constructs. Biomaterials 2007, 28, 1967–1977, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2007.01.004.
Li, W.J.; Jiang, Y.J.; Tuan, R.S. Cell-nanofiber-based cartilage tissue engineering using improved cell seeding, growth factor, and bioreactor technologies. Tissue Eng. Part A 2008, 14, 639–648, doi:10.1089/tea.2007.0136.
[209]
Yousefi, A.M.; Gauvin, C.; Sun, L.; DiRaddo, R.W.; Fernandes, J. Design and fabrication of 3D-plotted polymeric scaffolds in functional tissue engineering. Polym. Eng. Sci. 2007, 47, 608–618, doi:10.1002/pen.20732.
[210]
Envision TEC BioPlotter V4. Altair Consulting Website. Available online: http://www.altair-consulting.com/envisiontec_bioplotter_v4.htm (accessed on May 2011).
[211]
Caterson, E.J.; Nesti, L.J.; Li, W.J.; Danielson, K.G.; Albert, T.J.; Vaccaro, A.R.; Tuan, R.S. Three-dimensional cartilage formation by bone marrow-derived cells seeded ion polylactide/alginate amalgam. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 2001, 57, 394–403, doi:10.1002/1097-4636(20011205)57:3<394::AID-JBM1182>3.0.CO;2-9.
[212]
Ameer, G.A.; Mahmood, T.A.; Langer, R. A biodegradable composite scaffold for cell transplantation. J. Orthop. Res. 2002, 20, 16–19, doi:10.1016/S0736-0266(01)00074-2.
[213]
Marijnissen, W.J.; van Osch, G.J.; Aigner, J.; Verwoerd-Verhoef, H.L.; Verhaar, J.A. Tissue-engineered cartilage using serially passaged articular chondrocytes. Chondrocytes in alginate, combined in vivo with a synthetic (E210) or biologic biodegradable carrier (DBM). Biomaterials 2000, 21, 571–580.
[214]
Dai, W.; Kawazoe, N.; Lin, X.; Dong, J.; Chen, G. The influence of structural design of PLGA/collagen hybrid scaffolds in cartilage tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2010, 31, 2141–2152.
[215]
Shahin, K. In Vitro Production of Human Hyaline Cartilage using Tissue Engineering. Ph.D. Thesis, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia, 2008.
[216]
Wayne, J.S.; McDowell, C.L.; Shields, K.J.; Tuan, R.S. In vivo response of polylactic acid-alginate scaffolds and bone marrow-derived cells for cartilage tissue engineering. Tissue Eng. 2005, 11, 953–963, doi:10.1089/ten.2005.11.953.
Jung, Y.; Kim, S.H.; Kim, Y.H.; Kim, S.H. The effect of hybridization of hydrogels and poly (L-lactide-co-epsilon-caprolactone) scaffold on cartilage tissue engineering. J. Biomat. Sci. Polym. E 2010, 21, 581–592, doi:10.1163/156856209X430579.
[221]
Kawazoe, N.; Inoue, C.; Tateishi, T.; Chen, G. A cell leakproof PLGA-collagen hybrid scaffold for cartilage tissue engineering. Biotechnol. Prog. 2010, 26, 819–826.
[222]
Chen, G.; Sato, T.; Ushida, T.; Ochiai, N.; Tateishi, T. Tissue engineering of cartilage using a hybrid scaffold of synthetic polymer and collagen. Tissue Eng. 2004, 10, 323–330, doi:10.1089/107632704323061681.
[223]
Hiraoka, Y.; Kimura, Y.; Ueda, H.; Tabata, Y. fabrication and biocompatibility of collagen sponge reinforced with poly (glycolic acid) fiber. Tissue Eng. 2003, 9, 1101–1112, doi:10.1089/10763270360728017.
[224]
Jung, Y.; Kim, S.-H.; Kim, Y.H.; Kim, S.H. The effects of dynamic and three-dimensional environments on chondrogenic differentiation of bone marrow stromal cells source. Biomed. Mater. 2009, 4, doi:10.1088/1748-6041/4/5/055009.
[225]
Lee, H.; Yeo, M.; Ahn, S.; Kang, D.O.; Jang, C.H.; Lee, H.; Park, G.M.; Kim, G.H. Designed hybrid scaffolds consisting of polycaprolactone microstrands and electrospun collagen-nanofibers for bone tissue regeneration. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B Appl. Biomater. 2011, 97, 263–270.
Yu, H.; Grynpas, M.; Kandel, R.A. Composition of cartilagenous tissue with mineralized and non-mineralized zones formed in vitro. Biomaterials 1997, 18, 1425–1432, doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(97)00071-9.
[228]
Hu, J.C.; Athanasiou, K.A. A self-assembling process in articular cartilage tissue engineering. Tissue Eng. 2006, 12, 969–979.
[229]
Elder, B.D.; Athanasiou, K.A. Effects of temporal hydrostatic pressure on tissue-engineered bovine articular cartilage constructs. Tissue Eng. Part A 2009, 15, 1151–1158, doi:10.1089/ten.tea.2008.0200.
[230]
Elder, S.H.; Cooley, A.J., Jr.; Borazjani, A.; Sowell, B.L.; To, H.; Tran, S.C. Production of hyaline-like cartilage by bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells in a self-assembly model. Tissue Eng. Part A 2009, 15, 3025–3036, doi:10.1089/ten.tea.2008.0617.
[231]
Ofek, G.; Revell, C.M.; Hu, J.C.; Allison, D.D.; Grande-Allen, K.J.; Athanasiou, K.A. Matrix development in self-assembly of articular cartilage. PLoS One 2008, 3, e2795.
[232]
Jakab, K.; Norotte, C.; Marga, F.; Murphy, K.; Vunjak-Novakovic, G.; Forgacs, G. Tissue engineering by self-assembly and bio-printing of living cells. Biofabrication 2010, 2, 022001, doi:10.1088/1758-5082/2/2/022001.
[233]
Wise, J.K.; Yarin, A.L.; Megaridis, C.M.; Cho, M. Chondrogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells on oriented nanofibrous scaffolds: engineering the superficial zone of articular cartilage. Tissue Eng. A 2009, 15, 913–921.
[234]
Ng, K.; Wang, C.C.; Guo, X.E.; Ateshian, G.A.; Hung, C.T. Characterization of inhomogeneous Bi-layered chondrocyte-seeded agarose constructs of differing agarose concentrations. In Transactions of the Orthopedic Research Society, Proceedings of 49th Annual Meeting; Orthopedic Research Society, Chicago, III, Ed.; The Orthopedic Research Society: New Orleans, LA, USA, 2003; Volume 28. Abstract no. 960.
[235]
Ng, K.W.; Wang, C.C.; Mauck, R.L.; Kelly, T.N.; Chahine, N.O.; Costa, K.D.; Ateshian, G.A.; Hung, C.T. A Layered agarose approach to fabricate depth-dependent inhomogeneity in chondrocyte-seeded constructs. J. Orthop. Res. 2005, 23, 134–141, doi:10.1016/j.orthres.2004.05.015.
[236]
Kim, T.K.; Sharma, B.; Williams, C.G.; Ruffner, M.A.; Malik, A.; McFarland, E.G.; Elisseeff, J.H. Experimental model for cartilage tissue engineering to regenerate the zonal organization of articular cartilage. Osteoarth. Cart. 2003, 11, 653–664, doi:10.1016/S1063-4584(03)00120-1.
[237]
Sharma, B.; Williams, C.G.; Kim, T.K.; Malik, A.; Elisseeff, J.H. Multi-layered hydrogel constructs recreate zonal organization of articular cartilage. In Transactions of the Orthopedic Research Society, Proceedings of the 49th Annual Meeting, Orthopedic Research Society, Chicago, III, Ed.; The Orthopedic Research Society: New Orleans, LA, 2003; Volume 28. Abstract no. 948.
[238]
Klein, T.J.; Schumacher, B.L.; Li, K.W.; Voegtline, M.; Masuda, K.; Thonar, E.J.; Sah, R.L. Tissue engineered articular cartilage with functional stratification: Targeted delivery of chondrocytes expressing superficial zone protein. In Transactions of the Orthopedic Research Society, Proceedings of 48th Annual Meeting, Orthopedic Research Society, Chicago, III, Ed.; The Orthopedic Research Society: Dallas, TX, USA, 2002; Volume 27. abstract no.212.
[239]
Nguyen, L.H.; Kudva, A.K.; Guckert, N.L.; Linse, K.D.; Roy, K. Unique biomaterial compositions direct bone marrow stem cells into specific chondrocytic phenotypes corresponding to the various zones of articular cartilage. Biomaterials 2011, 32, 1327–1338.
[240]
Thomson, B.; Smith, M.; Boyer, S.; Turner, R.; Kidd, D.; Riggs, H.; Dowthwaite, G.; Archer, C. Coated biomaterials, zonal cell-seeding and cartilage tissue engineering. In Transactions of the Orthopedic Research Society, Proceedings of 48th Annual Meeting, Orthopedic Research Society, Chicago, III, Ed.; The Orthopedic Research Society: Dallas, TX, USA, 2002; Volume 27. abstract no. 477.
[241]
Hwang, N.S.; Varghese, S.; Janice, H.L.; Theprungsirikul, P.; Canver, A.; Sharma, B.; Elisseeff, J. Response of zonal chondrocytes to extracellular matrix-hydrogels. FEBS Lett. 2007, 581, 4172–4178.
[242]
Ng, K.W.; Ateshian, G.A.; Hung, C.T. Zonal chondrocytes seeded in a layered agarose hydrogel create engineered cartilage with depth-dependent cellular and mechanical inhomogeneity. Tissue Eng. Part A 2009, 15, 2315–2324, doi:10.1089/ten.tea.2008.0391.
[243]
Sharma, B.; Williams, C.G.; Kim, T.K.; Sun, D.; Malik, A.; Khan, M.; Leong, K.; Elisseeff, J.H. Designing zonal organization into tissue-engineered cartilage. Tissue Eng. 2007, 13, 405–414, doi:10.1089/ten.2006.0068.
[244]
Gillette, B.M.; Rossen, N.S.; Das, N.; Leong, D.; Wang, M.; Dugar, A.; Sia, S.K. Engineering extracellular matrix structure in 3D multiphase tissues. Biomaterials 2011, 32, 8067–8076, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.05.043.
[245]
Grayson, W.L.; Bhumiratana, S.; Grace-Chao, P.H.; Hung, C.T.; Vunjak-Novakovic, G. Spatial regulation of human mesenchymal stem cell differentiation in engineered osteochondral constructs: Effects of pre-differentiation, soluble factors and medium perfusion. Osteoarth. Cart. 2010, 18, 714–723.
[246]
Erisken, C.; Kalyon, D.M.; Wang, H. Functionally graded electrospun polycaprolactone and beta-tricalcium phosphate nanocomposites for tissue engineering applications. Biomaterials 2008, 29, 4065–4073, doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.06.022.
[247]
O’Shea, T.M.; Miao, X. Bilayered scaffolds for osteochondral tissue engineering. Tissue Eng. Part B Rev. 2008, 14, 447–464, doi:10.1089/ten.teb.2008.0327.
[248]
Jeon, J.E.; Schrobback, K.; Hutmacher, D.W.; Klein, T.J. Dynamic compression improves biosynthesis of human zonal chondrocytes from osteoarthritis patients. Osteoarth. Cart. 2012, 20, 906–915, doi:10.1016/j.joca.2012.04.019.
[249]
Marsano, A.; Wendt, D.; Quinn, T.M.; Sims, T.J.; Farhadi, J.; Jakob, M.; Heberer, M.; Martin, I. Bi-zonal cartilaginous tissues engineered in a rotary cell culture system. Biorheology 2006, 43, 553–560.
[250]
Mizuno, S. A novel method for assessing effects of hydrostatic fluid pressure on intracellular calcium: A study with bovine articular chondrocytes. Am. J. Physiol. Cell. Physiol. 2005, 288, C329–C337, doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00131.2004.
Gepp, M.M.; Ehrhart, F.; Shirley, S.G.; Howitz, S.; Zimmermann, H. Dispensing of very low volumes of ultra high viscosity alginate gels: A new tool for encapsulation of adherent cells and rapid prototyping of scaffolds and implants. Biotechniques 2009, 46, 31–34.
[254]
Tonde, M.P. Retrofitting a stereolithography system within a laminar flow hood. ETD Collection for University of Texas, El Paso. Paper AAI1473894. Available online: http://digitalcommons.utep.edu/dissertations/AAI1473894 (accessed on 8 September,2012).
[255]
Ostrander, R.V.; Goomer, R.S.; Tontz, W.L.; Khatod, M.; Harwood, F.L.; Maris, T.M.; Amiel, D. Donor cell fate in tissue engineering for articular cartilage repair. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 2001, 389, 228–237, doi:10.1097/00003086-200108000-00032.
[256]
Mierisch, C.M.; Wilson, H.A.; Turner, M.A.; Milbrandt, T.A.; Berthoux, L.; Hammarskjold, M.L.; Rekosh, D.; Balian, G.; Diduch, D.R. Chondrocyte transplantation into articular cartilage defects with use of calcium alginate: The fate of the cells. J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. 2003, 85A, 1757–1767.
