The present paper explores the influence of the physical environmental qualities of “quiet” courtyards (degree of naturalness and utilization) on residents’ noise responses. A questionnaire study was conducted in urban residential areas with road-traffic noise exposure between L Aeq,24h 58 to 68 dB at the most exposed fa？ade. The dwellings had “quiet” indoor section/s and faced a “quiet” outdoor courtyard (L Aeq,24h < 48 dB fa？ade reflex included). Data were collected from 385 residents and four groups were formed based on sound-level categories (58–62 and 63–68 dB) and classification of the “quiet” courtyards into groups with low and high physical environmental quality. At both sound-level categories, the results indicate that access to high-quality “quiet” courtyards is associated with less noise annoyance and noise-disturbed outdoor activities among the residents. Compared to low-quality “quiet” courtyards, high-quality courtyards can function as an attractive restorative environment providing residents with a positive soundscape, opportunities for rest, relaxation and play as well as social relations that potentially reduce the adverse effects of noise. However, access to quietness and a high-quality courtyard can only compensate partly for high sound levels at fa？ades facing the streets, thus, 16% and 29% were still noise annoyed at 58–62 and 63–68 dB, respectively. Implications of the “quiet”-side concept are discussed.
References
[1]
Hartig, T. Restorative environments. Environ. Behav？2001, 33, 475–479, doi:10.1177/00139160121973098.
[2]
Evans, GW. The built environment and mental health. J. Urban Health？2003, 80, 536–555, doi:10.1093/jurban/jtg063. 14709704
[3]
Guidelines for Community Noise; Berglund, B, Lindvall, T, Schwela, DH, Goh, K-T, Eds.; World Health Organization Guideline Document: Geneva, Switzerland, 2000.
？hrstr？m, E. Longitudinal surveys on effects of changes in road traffic noise—annoyance, activity disturbances, and psycho-social well-being. J. Acoust. Soc. Am？2004, 115, 719–727, doi:10.1121/1.1639333. 15000184
[6]
Babisch, W; Beule, B; Schust, M; Kersten, N; Ising, H. Traffic noise and risk of myocardial infarction. Epidemiology？2005, 16, 33–40, doi:10.1097/01.ede.0000147104.84424.24. 15613943
[7]
Babisch, W. Transportation noise and cardiovascular risk: updated review and synthesis of epidemiological studies indicate that the evidence has increased. Noise Health？2006, 8, 1–29, doi:10.4103/1463-1741.32464. 17513892
[8]
Bluhm, G; Berglind, N; Nordling, E; Rosenlund, M. Road traffic noise and hypertension. Occup. Environ. Med？2007, 64, 122–126. 17053022
[9]
Barreg？rd, L; Bonde, E; ？hrstr？m, E. Risk of hypertension from exposure to road traffic noise in a population-based sample. Occup. Environ. Med？2009, 66, 410–415, doi:10.1136/oem.2008.042804. 19188199
[10]
Kastka, J; Buchta, E; Ritterstaedt, U; Paulsen, R; Mau, U. The long term effect of noise protection barriers on the annoyance response of residents. J. Sound Vib？1995, 184, 823–852, doi:10.1006/jsvi.1995.0348.
[11]
Nilsson, ME; Berglund, B. Noise annoyance and activity disturbance before and after the erection of a roadside noise barrier. J. Acoust. Soc. Am？2006, 119, 2178–2188, doi:10.1121/1.2169906. 16642832
[12]
Gidl？f-Gunnarsson, A; ？hrstr？m, E. The effectiveness of quiet asphalt and earth berm in reducing annoyances due to road traffic noise in residential areas. In Proceedings of the 9th International Congress on Noise as a Public Health Problem; Griefahn, B, Ed.; Mashantucket: Foxwoods, CT, USA, 2008.
[13]
Kihlman, T. Quiet side and high fa？ade insulation—means to solve the city noise problem. In Proceedings of Inter Noise 2001. The Hague, The Netherlands, 27–30 August, 2001; Institute of Noise Control Engineering: Washington, DC, USA; Volume 2, pp. 1227–1236.
[14]
Kihlman, T; Kropp, W; ？hrstr？m, E; Berglund, B. Soundscape support to health. A cross-disciplinary research programme. In Proceedings of Inter Noise 2001. The Hague, the Netherlands, 27–30 August, 2001; Institute of Noise Control Engineering: Washington, DC, USA; Volume 3, pp. 1237–1242.
[15]
？hrstr？m, E; Sk？nberg, A; Svensson, H; Gidl？f-Gunnarsson, A. Effects of road traffic noise and the benefit of access to quietness. J. Sound Vib？2006, 295, 40–59, doi:10.1016/j.jsv.2005.11.034.
[16]
Lercher, P. Environmental noise and health: An integrated research perspective. Environ. Inter？1996, 22, 117–129, doi:10.1016/0160-4120(95)00109-3.
[17]
Schulte-Fortkamp, B. The meaning of annoyance in relation to the quality of acoustic environments. Noise Health？2002, 4, 13–18. 12678945
[18]
Langdon, FG. Noise nuisance caused by road traffic in residential areas. J. Sound Vib？1976, 47, 243–263, doi:10.1016/0022-460X(76)90720-3.
[19]
Kastka, J; Noack, R. On the interaction of sensory experience, causal attributive cognitions and visual context parameters in noise annoyance. Dev. Toxicol. Environ. Sci？1987, 15, 345–362. 3569097
[20]
Fyhri, A; Kl？bo, R. Exploring the impact of visual aesthetics on the soundscape. In Proceedings of Inter Noise 99. Fort Lauderdale, Fl USA, 6–8 December, 1999; Institute of Noise Control Engineering: Washington, DC, USA; pp. 1261–1264.
[21]
Gidl？f-Gunnarsson, A; ？hrstr？m, E. Noise and well-being in urban residential environments: The potential role of perceived availability to nearby green areas. Landsc. Urban Plann？2007, 83, 115–126, doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2007.03.003.
[22]
Larsvall, M. G？rd i stad G？rdens delar, samband och f？r？ndringar med exempel fr？n Lund, (Courtyard in City. The Courtyard’S Parts, Associations and Changes with Examples from Lund); Byggforskningsr？det: Stockholm, Sweden, 1993.
[23]
Olsson, S; Cruse Sondén, G; Ohlander, M. Det lilla grannskapet. G？rdar, trapphus och socialt liv (The Small Community. Courtyards, Stairwell and Social Life); Chalmers University of Technology, Centre for Building Culture, University of Gothenburg: Gothenburg, Sweden, 1997.
[24]
Tucker Cross, L; Küller, R. Environmental atmosphere of outdoor residential areas in Southern Sweden: A comparison of experts and residents. J. Architect. Plan. Res？2004, 21, 74–90.
[25]
Sullivan, WC; Kuo, FE; DePooter, SF. The fruit of urban nature. Vital neighborhood spaces. Environ. Inter？2004, 36, 678–700.
[26]
Kaplan, R; Kaplan, S. The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective; Cambridge University Press: New York, NY, USA, 1989.
[27]
Skjaeveland, O; Garling, T. Effects of interactional space on neighbouring. J. Environ. Psychol？1997, 17, 181–198, doi:10.1006/jevp.1997.0054.
[28]
Thorsson, P; ？gren, M; Kropp, W. Noise levels on the shielded side in cities using a flat city model. Appl. Acoust？2004, 65, 313–323, doi:10.1016/j.apacoust.2003.11.005.
[29]
？gren, M; Kropp, W. Road traffic noise propagation between two dimensional city canyons using an equivalent sources approach. Acta Acust. United Acust？2004, 90, 293–300.
[30]
Kaplan, R. The role of nature in the urban context. In Behavior and the Natural Environment; Altman, I, Wohlwill, JF, Eds.; Plenum: New York, NY, USA, 1983; pp. 127–162.
[31]
Gehl, J. Soft Edges. in residential streets. Scand. Hous. Plan. Res？1986, 3, 89–102, doi:10.1080/02815738608730092.
[32]
Kaplan, R. The nature of the view from home. Psychological benefits. Environ. Behav？2001, 33, 507–542, doi:10.1177/00139160121973115.
[33]
Torseke Hulthén, K. Bra bostadsg？rdar—h？r vill vi bo! (Good Courtyards—Here We Want to Live!); Svensk Byggtj？nst AB: Stockholm, Sweden, 2000.
[34]
？hrstr？m, E. Longterm effects in terms of psychosocial well-being, annoyance and sleep disturbance in areas exposed to high levels of road traffic noise. In Proceedings of the 6th International Congress on Noise as a Public Health Problem, Noise and Man ‘93; Vallet, M, Ed.; Institut National de Recherche sur les Transports et leur Sécurité: Nice France, 1993; Volume 2, pp. 209–212.
[35]
Berglund, B; Nilsson, ME. On a tool for measuring soundscape quality in urban residential areas. Acta Acust. United Acust？2006, 92, 938–944.
[36]
Nilsson, ME; Berglund, B. Soundscape quality in suburban green areas and city parks. Acta Acust. United Acust？2006, 92, 903–911.
[37]
ISO/TS15666:2003(E). Technical Specification, Acoustics—Assessment of Noise Annoyance by Means of Social and Socio-Acoustic Surveys; International Organization for Standardization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2003.
[38]
Alvarsson, JJ; Wiens, S; Nilsson, ME. Stress recovery during exposure to nature sound and environmental noise. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health？2010, 7, 1036–1046, doi:10.3390/ijerph7031036. 20617017
[39]
Kaplan, R. Nature at the doorstep. Residential satisfaction and the nearby environment. J. Archit. Plan. Res？1985, 2, 115–127.
[40]
Hartig, T; Mang, M; Evans, GW. Restorative effects of natural environment experience. Environ. Behav？1991, 23, 3–26, doi:10.1177/0013916591231001.
[41]
Laumann, K; G？rling, T; Stormark, KM. Selective attention and heart rate responses to natural and urban environments. J. Environ. Psychol？2003, 23, 125–134, doi:10.1016/S0272-4944(02)00110-X.
[42]
Ulrich, RS. Natural versus urban scenes. Some psychophysiological effects. Environ. Behav？1981, 13, 523–556, doi:10.1177/0013916581135001.
[43]
Ulrich, RS. Aesthetic and affective response to natural environments. In Behavior and the Natural Environment; Altman, I, Wohlwill, JF, Eds.; Plenum: New York, NY, USA, 1983; pp. 85–125.
[44]
G？ransson, S; Lieberg, M. Bra bostadsg？rdar och socialt samspel (Good courtyards and social interaction). In Bra bostadsg？rdar—h？r vill vi bo!. (Good Courtyards—Here We Want to Live!); Torseke Hulthén, K, Ed.; AB Svensk Byggtj？nst: Stockholm, Sweden, 2000.
[45]
Yang, W; Kang, J. Soundscapes and sound preferences in urban squares. J. Urban Des？2005, 10, 69–88.
[46]
Guastavino, C. The ideal urban soundscape: Investigating the sound quality of French cities. Acta Acust. United Acust？2006, 92, 945–951.
