A Test on the 3-Dimensional Model of Achievement Goals in Sports:An Empirical Study on Elite Table Tennis Players
对运动成就目标三维模型的检验 ──一项对高水平乒乓球运动员的实证研究

Introduction The present study aimed at testing Harwood, Hardy and Swain's (2000) 3-dimensional model of achievement goals in sports. The three dimensions are pure task, self-referenced ego involvement and norm-referenced ego involvement. Their proposal came out from the criticisms of Nicholl's (1984, 1987) popular 2-dimensional task-ego goal orientation theory in sports and its related instruments, namely the Task and Ego Orientation Sport Questionnaire,and the Perception of Success Questionnaire. Harwood, Hardy and Swain questioned (a) the rationale for differentiating effort from ability in competition, and(b) the appropriateness of using the two questionnaires as the items have failed to effectively discriminate among individuals who are truly high, low or moderate in task or ego involvement. Method Two studies were conducted. Study 1 reports the development of a 9-item Achievement Goal Questionnaire (AGQ). Reliability and validity of the questionnaire were assessed. The objective of Study 2 was to assess the nature of achievement goal orientation and involvement state of four elite table tennis players (M=2, F=2) before, during and after competition. Four important matches were selected and videotaped, and interviews were conducted within three days of each important match. Any changes in achievement goal orientation and involvement state were noted when the players recalled experiencing an adverse or good situation during the match in question. Qualitative method was used to analyze the content of the interviews. Results Confirmatory factor analysis resulted in a clear 3-factor solution. Test-retest (2 weeks apart) statistics showed good reliability of each of the three factors. Consistent results obtained from the coaches' evaluation of the four players and the players' responses to the AGQ lent further support to the convergent validity of the questionnaire. The findings in Study 2 showed that: (1) there was inconsistency between the four players' achievement goal orientation and involvement state before an important match, reflecting the influence of both individual characteristics and qualities of particular opponents; (2) before and during competition the players' involvement state showed a multiple-goal tendency; the players could focus on a single goal as well as two or three goals at the same time; (3) after competition their goal involvement state tended to be affected by the process and result of the competition; and (4) sub-goal involvement state (characterized by a lack of strong achievement goal motivation) was also observed when players experienced major setbacks in the competition. Conclusion The results of this study support Harwood, Hardy and Swain's 3-dimensional model of achievement goals. A reliable and valid questionnaire was developed to test the model. The questionnaire should, however, be further refined by extending to other sports and a wider variety of athletes. In addition, the study has indicated the nature of t