全部 标题 作者
关键词 摘要

OALib Journal期刊
ISSN: 2333-9721
费用:99美元

查看量下载量

相关文章

更多...

The Natural Progression of Gambiense Sleeping Sickness: What Is the Evidence?

DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000303

Full-Text   Cite this paper   Add to My Lib

Abstract:

Gambiense human African trypanosomiasis (HAT, sleeping sickness) is widely assumed to be 100% pathogenic and fatal. However, reports to the contrary exist, and human trypano-tolerance has been postulated. Furthermore, there is uncertainty about the actual duration of both stage 1 and stage 2 infection, particularly with respect to how long a patient remains infectious. Understanding such basic parameters of HAT infection is essential for optimising control strategies based on case detection. We considered the potential existence and relevance of human trypano-tolerance, and explored the duration of infectiousness, through a review of published evidence on the natural progression of gambiense HAT in the absence of treatment, and biological considerations. Published reports indicate that most gambiense HAT cases are fatal if untreated. Self-resolving and asymptomatic chronic infections probably constitute a minority if they do indeed exist. Chronic carriage, however, deserves further study, as it could seed renewed epidemics after control programmes cease.

References

[1]  Stich A (2004) African trypanosomiasis. In: Parry E, Godfrey R, Mabey D, Gill G, editors. Principles of medicine in Africa. Third ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 475–488.
[2]  Pepin J, Donelson JE (1999) African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness). In: Guerrant RL, Walker DH, Weller PF, editors. Tropical infectious diseases: principles, pathogens and practice. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone. pp. 774–784.
[3]  Eddleston M, Pierini S, Wilkinson R, Davidson R, editors. (2005) Oxford handbook of tropical medicine. Second ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[4]  Laveran A, Mesnil F (1904) Trypanosomes et trypanosomiases. Paris.
[5]  Burri C, Brun R (2003) Human African trypanosomiasis. In: Cook GC, Zumla A, editors. Manson's tropical diseases. 21 ed. London: Elsevier Science limited. pp. 1303–1323.
[6]  Gill GV, Beeching NJ, editors. (2004) Lecture notes on tropical medicine. 5th ed. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
[7]  Pepin J (2000) African trypanosomiasis. In: Strickland TG, editor. Hunter's tropical medicine and emerging infectious diseases. 8th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company. pp. 643–653.
[8]  Apted FIC (1970) Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of sleeping sickness. In: Mulligan HW, editor. The African trypanosomiases. first ed. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. pp. 661–682.
[9]  Bruce D (1914) Classification of the African trypanosomes pathogenic to man and domestic animals. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 8: 1–22.
[10]  Asonganyi T, Hengy C, Louis JP, Ghogomu NA (1991) Reactivation of an old sleeping sickness focus in Mamfe (Cameroon): epidemiological, immunological and parasitological findings. Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique 39: 55–62.
[11]  Dje NN, Miezan TW, N'Guessan P, Brika P, Doua F, et al. (2002) [Geographic distribution of trypanosomiasis treated in Ivory Coast from 1993 to 2000]. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 95: 359–361.
[12]  Welburn SC, Fevre EM, Coleman PG, Odiit M, Maudlin I (2001) Sleeping sickness: a tale of two diseases. Trends Parasitol 17: 19–24. doi: 10.1016/S1471-4922(00)01839-0
[13]  Winnen M, Plaisier AP, Alley ES, Nagelkerke NJ, van Oortmarssen G, et al. (2002) Can ivermectin mass treatments eliminate onchocerciasis in Africa? Bull World Health Organ 80: 384–391.
[14]  Vlas SJ, Van Oortmarssen GJ, Gryseels B, Polderman AM, Plaisier AP, et al. (1996) SCHISTOSIM: a microsimulation model for the epidemiology and control of schistosomiasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 55: 170–175.
[15]  Checchi F, Filipe JA, Haydon DT, Chandramohan D, Chappuis F (2008) Estimates of the duration of the early and late stage of gambiense sleeping sickness. BMC Infect Dis 8: 16. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-8-16
[16]  Frezil JL, Carnevale P (1976) Le probleme du reservoir du virus et du mantien des foyers de trypanosomiase humaine en Afrique Centrale. Cah ORSTOM, ser Ent med et Parasitol 14: 307–313.
[17]  Yorke W (1921) Recent work on the treatment of sleeping sickness: a critical review. Tropical Disease Bulletin 18: 154–174.
[18]  Fevre EM, Coleman PG, Welburn SC, Maudlin I (2004) Reanalyzing the 1900-1920 sleeping sickness epidemic in Uganda. Emerg Infect Dis 10: 567–573. doi: 10.3201/eid1004.020626
[19]  Sice A (1937) La trypanosomiase humaine en Afrique intertropicale. Paris: Vigot Frères.
[20]  Chappuis F, Loutan L, Simarro P, Lejon V, Buscher P (2005) Options for field diagnosis of human african trypanosomiasis. Clin Microbiol Rev 18: 133–146. doi: 10.1128/CMR.18.1.133-146.2005
[21]  Blum J, Beck BR, Brun R, Hatz C (2005) Clinical and serologic responses to human ‘apathogenic’ trypanosomes. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 99: 795–797. doi: 10.1016/j.trstmh.2005.04.010
[22]  Howie S, Guy M, Fleming L, Bailey W, Noyes H, et al. (2006) A Gambian infant with fever and an unexpected blood film. PLoS Med 3: e355. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0030355
[23]  Joshi PP, Shegokar VR, Powar RM, Herder S, Katti R, et al. (2005) Human trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma evansi in India: the first case report. Am J Trop Med Hyg 73: 491–495.
[24]  Deborggraeve S, Koffi M, Jamonneau V, Bonsu FA, Queyson R, et al. (2008) Molecular analysis of archived blood slides reveals an atypical human Trypanosoma infection. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 61: 428–433. doi: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2008.03.006
[25]  Greggio G (1917) Quelques observations sur la duree moyenne de vie des trypanoses en traitement. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 719–723.
[26]  Marshall CH, Vassallo SM (1923) The treatment of trypanosomiasis (a further report). British Medical Journal 231–235. doi: 10.1136/bmj.1.3241.231
[27]  Heckenroth (1913) Tournee medicale effectuee sur le Congo e l'Obangui. Annales d'Hygiene et Medecine Coloniales 16: 104–144.
[28]  Jamonneau V, Garcia A, Frezil JL, N'Guessan P, N'Dri L, et al. (2000) Clinical and biological evolution of human trypanosomiasis in C te d'Ivoire. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 94: 831–835. doi: 10.1080/00034980020028004
[29]  Jamonneau V, Ravel S, Garcia A, Koffi M, Truc P, et al. (2004) Characterization of Trypanosoma brucei s.l. infecting asymptomatic sleeping-sickness patients in Cote d'Ivoire: a new genetic group? Ann Trop Med Parasitol 98: 329–337. doi: 10.1179/000349804225003406
[30]  Todd JL (1919) The after-history of trypanosomiasis in Africa. Concerning immunity to human trypanosomiasis. New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal 72: 291–295.
[31]  Todd JL (1924) After-history of African trypanosomiasis, 1911–1924. British Medical Journal 169: 298. doi: 10.1136/bmj.2.3320.298
[32]  Lapierre J, Coste M (1963) Contribution a l'etude d'une souche de Trypanosoma gambiense (Feo) isolee d'un cas humain caracterise par une duree de plus de 20 ans de parasitemie cliniquement inappreciable. Annales de Parasitologie 38: 757–782.
[33]  Harding RD, Hutchinson MP (1948) Sleeping sickness of an unusual type in Sierra Leone and its attempted control. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 41: 481–512. doi: 10.1016/S0035-9203(48)90747-0
[34]  Dyleff P (1932) Quelques reflexions sur la disparition spontanee des trypanosomes chez trois europeens reconnus porteurs des trypanosomes. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 25: 956–958.
[35]  Barlovatz A (1933) Course, prognosis and classification of human trypanosomiasis. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 28: 1–20.
[36]  Cooke WE, Gregg AL, Manson-Bahr PH (1937) Recent experiences of mild or symptomless infections with Trypanosoma gambiense from the Gold Coast and Nigeria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 30: 461–466. doi: 10.1016/s0035-9203(37)90133-0
[37]  Blum J, Schmid C, Burri C (2006) Clinical aspects of 2541 patients with second stage human African trypanosomiasis. Acta Trop 97: 55–64. doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2005.08.001
[38]  Blum J, Nkunku S, Burri C (2001) Clinical description of encephalopathic syndromes and risk factors for their occurrence and outcome during melarsoprol treatment of human African trypanosomiasis. Trop Med Int Health 6: 390–400. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3156.2001.00710.x
[39]  Edan G (1979) [Clinical and biological symptoms of T. gambiense tryponosomiasis in the meningo-encephalitic period (author's transl)]. Med Trop (Mars) 39: 499–507.
[40]  Milord F, Pepin J, Loko L, Ethier L, Mpia B (1992) Efficacy and toxicity of eflornithine for treatment of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense sleeping sickness. Lancet 340: 652–655. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(92)92180-N
[41]  Njiokou F, Laveissiere C, Simo G, Nkinin S, Grebaut P, et al. (2006) Wild fauna as a probable animal reservoir for Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in Cameroon. Infect Genet Evol 6: 147–153. doi: 10.1016/j.meegid.2005.04.003
[42]  Pepin J, Meda HA (2001) The epidemiology and control of human African trypanosomiasis. Adv Parasitol 49: 71–132. doi: 10.1016/s0065-308x(01)49038-5
[43]  Shacklett BL (2006) Understanding the “lucky few”: the conundrum of HIV-exposed, seronegative individuals. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 3: 26–31. doi: 10.1007/s11904-006-0005-2
[44]  Ewald PW (1994) Evolution of infectious disease. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.
[45]  Day T, Graham AL, Read AF (2007) Evolution of parasite virulence when host responses cause disease. Proc Biol Sci 274: 2685–2692. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2007.0809
[46]  Pays E, Vanhollebeke B, Vanhamme L, Paturiaux-Hanocq F, Nolan DP, et al. (2006) The trypanolytic factor of human serum. Nat Rev Microbiol 4: 477–486. doi: 10.1038/nrmicro1428
[47]  Pays E (2005) Regulation of antigen gene expression in Trypanosoma brucei. Trends Parasitol 21: 517–520. doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2005.08.016
[48]  Turner CM (1997) The rate of antigenic variation in fly-transmitted and syringe-passaged infections of Trypanosoma brucei. FEMS Microbiol Lett 153: 227–231. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1997.tb10486.x
[49]  Raseroka BH, Ormerod WE (1986) Is Trypanosoma brucei an intracellular parasite? Parasitol Today 2: 147–148. doi: 10.1016/0169-4758(86)90182-1
[50]  Murray M, Morrison WI, Whitelaw DD (1982) Host susceptibility to African trypanosomiasis: trypanotolerance. Adv Parasitol 21: 1–68. doi: 10.1016/s0065-308x(08)60274-2
[51]  Sternberg JM (2004) Human African trypanosomiasis: clinical presentation and immune response. Parasite Immunol 26: 469–476. doi: 10.1111/j.0141-9838.2004.00731.x
[52]  Vanhollebeke B, Truc P, Poelvoorde P, Pays A, Joshi PP, et al. (2006) Human Trypanosoma evansi infection linked to a lack of apolipoprotein L-I. N Engl J Med 355: 2752–2756. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa063265
[53]  Bisser S, Ouwe-Missi-Oukem-Boyer ON, Toure FS, Taoufiq Z, Bouteille B, et al. (2006) Harbouring in the brain: A focus on immune evasion mechanisms and their deleterious effects in malaria and human African trypanosomiasis. Int J Parasitol 36: 529–540. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2006.02.001
[54]  Nikolskaia OV, de A Lima AP, Kim YV, Lonsdale-Eccles JD, Fukuma T, et al. (2006) Blood-brain barrier traversal by African trypanosomes requires calcium signaling induced by parasite cysteine protease. J Clin Invest 116: 2739–2747. doi: 10.1172/JCI27798
[55]  Kennedy PG (2006) Diagnostic and neuropathogenesis issues in human African trypanosomiasis. Int J Parasitol 36: 505–512. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2006.01.012
[56]  Truc P, Tibayrenc M (1993) Population genetics of Trypanosoma brucei in central Africa: taxonomic and epidemiological significance. Parasitology 106 (Pt2): 137–149. doi: 10.1017/S003118200007493X
[57]  Tilley A, Welburn SC, Fevre EM, Feil EJ, Hide G (2003) Trypanosoma brucei: trypanosome strain typing using PCR analysis of mobile genetic elements (MGE-PCR). Exp Parasitol 104: 26–32. doi: 10.1016/S0014-4894(03)00114-0
[58]  Garcia A, Courtin D, Solano P, Koffi M, Jamonneau V (2006) Human African trypanosomiasis: connecting parasite and host genetics. Trends Parasitol 22: 405–409. doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2006.06.011
[59]  Truc P, Jamonneau V, N'Guessan P, N'Dri L, Diallo PB, et al. (1998) Trypanosoma brucei ssp. and T congolense: mixed human infection in Cote d'Ivoire. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 92: 537–538. doi: 10.1016/S0035-9203(98)90904-X
[60]  Jamonneau V, Garcia A, Ravel S, Cuny G, Oury B, et al. (2002) Genetic characterization of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and clinical evolution of human African trypanosomiasis in Cote d'Ivoire. Trop Med Int Health 7: 610–621. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3156.2002.00905.x
[61]  Duggan AJ (1962) A survey of sleeping sickness in northern Nigeria from the earliest times to the present day. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 56: 439–480. doi: 10.1016/0035-9203(62)90070-6
[62]  Mulligan HW (1955) Recent investigations on trypanosomiasis in British West Africa. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 49: 199–228. doi: 10.1016/0035-9203(55)90065-1
[63]  Buyst H (1977) The epidemiology of sleeping sickness in the historical Luangwa valley. Ann Soc Belg Med Trop 57: 349–359.
[64]  Garcia A, Jamonneau V, Magnus E, Laveissiere C, Lejon V, et al. (2000) Follow-up of Card Agglutination Trypanosomiasis Test (CATT) positive but apparently aparasitaemic individuals in Cote d'Ivoire: evidence for a complex and heterogeneous population. Trop Med Int Health 5: 786–793. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3156.2000.00623.x
[65]  Koffi M, Solano P, Denizot M, Courtin D, Garcia A, et al. (2006) Aparasitemic serological suspects in Trypanosoma brucei gambiense human African trypanosomiasis: a potential human reservoir of parasites? Acta Trop 98: 183–188. doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2006.04.001
[66]  Kanmogne GD, Asonganyi T, Gibson WC (1996) Detection of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, in serologically positive but aparasitaemic sleeping-sickness suspects in Cameroon, by PCR. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 90: 475–483.
[67]  Gouteux JP, Artzrouni M (2000) [Persistence and resurgence of sleeping sickness caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in historic foci. Biomathematical approach of an epidemiologic enigma]. C R Acad Sci III 323: 351–364. doi: 10.1016/S0764-4469(00)00145-1
[68]  Inojosa WO, Augusto I, Bisoffi Z, Josenado T, Abel PM, et al. (2006) Diagnosing human African trypanosomiasis in Angola using a card agglutination test: observational study of active and passive case finding strategies. Bmj 332: 1479. doi: 10.1136/bmj.38859.531354.7C
[69]  Simarro PP, Ruiz JA, Franco JR, Josenando T (1999) Attitude towards CATT-positive individuals without parasitological confirmation in the African Trypanosomiasis (T.b. gambiense) focus of Quicama (Angola). Trop Med Int Health 4: 858–861. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3156.1999.00494.x
[70]  Maudlin I (2006) African trypanosomiasis. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 100: 679–701. doi: 10.1179/136485906X112211
[71]  Artzrouni M, Gouteux JP (1996) Control strategies for sleeping sickness in Central Africa: a model-based approach. Trop Med Int Health 1: 753–764. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.1996.tb00107.x
[72]  Artzrouni MC, Gouteux JP (2001) Population dynamics of sleeping sickness: a micro-simulation. Simulation and Gaming 32: 215–227. doi: 10.1177/104687810103200209
[73]  World Health Organization (2006) Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness): epidemiological update. Weekly Epidemiological Record 81: 71–80.
[74]  Barrett MP (2006) The rise and fall of sleeping sickness. Lancet 367: 1377–1378. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68591-7
[75]  Simarro PP, Jannin J, Cattand P (2008) Eliminating human african trypanosomiasis: where do we stand and what comes next. PLoS Med 5: e55. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0050055
[76]  Lester HMO (1933) The characteristics of some Nigerian strains of the polymorphic trypanosomes. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 27: 361–395.
[77]  Duggan AJ (1962) The occurrence of Human Trypanosomiasis among the Rukuba Tribe of Northern Nigeria. J Trop Med Hyg 65: 151–163.
[78]  Harding RD (1940) The influence of sleeping sickness on mortality in two districts of northern Nigeria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 33: 483–500. doi: 10.1016/s0035-9203(40)90031-1
[79]  van Hoof LMJ (1947) Observations on trypanosomiasis in the Belgian Congo. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 40: 728–754.
[80]  Jamot E (1929) La maladie du sommeil au Cameroun en janvier 1929. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 22: 473–496.
[81]  Wade WM (1914) A report on human trypanosomiasis in the Western province of Ashanti. Report to colonial office, November 3rd 1913. Tropical Disease Bulletin 3: 164–166.
[82]  Woodruff AW, Evans DA, Owino NO (1982) A ‘healthy’ carrier of African trypanosomiasis. Journal of Infection 5: 89–92. doi: 10.1016/s0163-4453(82)93389-8
[83]  Taelman H, Schechter PJ, Marcelis L, Sonnet J, Kazyumba G, et al. (1987) Difluoromethylornithine, an effective new treatment of Gambian trypanosomiasis. Results in five patients. Am J Med 82: 607–614. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(87)90107-0
[84]  Ringenbach (1914) Tournee medicale effectuee de Brazzaville a Pointe-Noire (Moyen-Congo et Gabon) en Juin et Juillet 1912. Annales d'Hygiene et Medecine Coloniales 17: 361–387.
[85]  Kerandel J (1910) Un cas de trypanosomiase chez un medecin (auto-observation). Bull Soc Pathol Exot 3: 642–653.
[86]  Low GC, Manson-Bahr PH (1922) The treatment of human trypanosomiasis by “Bayer 205”. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 16: 339–383.
[87]  Stephens JW, Yorke W (1922) A case of sleeping sickness (T. gambiense) treated by ‘Bayer 205’. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 16: 421–424.
[88]  Crastnopol P, Bumin I, Douglas AH (1963) Sleeping Sickness in an Englishman from the Sudan. J Trop Med Hyg 66: 277–279.
[89]  Coulaud JP, Vachon F, Lebigot P, Lagarde P, Pasticier A, et al. (1975) [African trypanosomiasis at the Claude-Bernard Hospital (diagnostic circumstances and therapeutic problems)]. Ann Med Interne (Paris) 126: 671–676.
[90]  Scott JA, Davidson RN, Moody AH, Bryceson AD (1991) Diagnosing multiple parasitic infections: trypanosomiasis, loiasis and schistosomiasis in a single case. Scand J Infect Dis 23: 777–780. doi: 10.3109/00365549109024307
[91]  Nattan-Larrier L, Ringenbach J (1912) Sur un cas de maladie du sommeil. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 5: 187–191.
[92]  Ortholan (1911) Un cas de trypanosomiase humaine. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 4: 624–626.
[93]  Sice A, Leger M (1931) Note complementaire sur le debut de l'evolution nerveuse de la trypanosomiase humaine. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 24: 828–832.
[94]  Cates JE, McIlroy MB (1951) African trypanosomiasis in a British soldier. British Medical Journal ii: 401–402. doi: 10.1136/bmj.2.4728.401
[95]  Dreyfus B, Laroche C, Fritel D, Nenna A, Schneider J (1960) [Trypanosomiasis responsible for Waldenstrom's disease.]. Presse Med 68: 590–592.
[96]  Grau Junyent JM, Rozman M, Corachan M, Estruch R, Urbano-Marquez A (1987) An unusual course of west African trypanosomiasis in a Caucasian man. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 81: 931–932. doi: 10.1016/0035-9203(87)90356-7
[97]  Blanchot I, Dabadie A, Tell G, Guiguen C, Faugere B, et al. (1992) [Recurrent fever episodes in an African child: diagnostic difficulties of trypanosomiasis in France]. Pediatrie 47: 179–183.
[98]  Buissonniere RF, De Boissieu D, Tell G, Bursztyn J, Belliot P, et al. (1989) [Uveo-meningitis revealing a West African trypanosomiasis in a 12-year-old girl]. Arch Fr Pediatr 46: 517–519.
[99]  Otte JA, Nouwen JL, Wismans PJ, Beukers R, Vroon HJ, et al. (1995) [African sleeping sickness in The Netherlands]. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 139: 2100–2104.
[100]  Damian MS, Dorndorf W, Burkardt H, Singer I, Leinweber B, et al. (1994) [Polyneuritis and myositis in Trypanosoma gambiense infection]. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 119: 1690–1693. doi: 10.1055/s-2008-1058888
[101]  Serrano-Gonzalez C, Velilla I, Fortuno B, Guelbenzu S, Portoles A (1996) [Neuroimaging and efficacy of treatment in advanced African trypanosomiasis]. Rev Neurol 24: 1554–1557.
[102]  Kirchhoff LV (1998) Use of a PCR assay for diagnosing African trypanosomiasis of the CNS: a case report. Cent Afr J Med 44: 134–136.
[103]  Raffenot D, Rogeaux O, Goer BD, Doche C, Tous J (2000) [Infectious mononucleosis or sleeping sickness?]. Ann Biol Clin (Paris) 58: 94–96.
[104]  Sahlas DJ, MacLean JD, Janevski J, Detsky AS (2002) Clinical problem-solving. Out of Africa. N Engl J Med 347: 749–753. doi: 10.1056/NEJMcps021049
[105]  Bonnal J, Blanc F, Nosny Y, Berard B, Mattei A (1963) [Human African Trypanosomiasis with Severe Intracranial Hypertension.]. Rev Neurol (Paris) 109: 76–82.
[106]  Bedat-Millet AL, Charpentier S, Monge-Strauss MF, Woimant F (2000) [Psychiatric presentation of human African trypanosomiasis: overview of diagnostic pitfalls, interest of difluoromethylornithine treatment and contribution of magnetic resonance imaging]. Rev Neurol (Paris) 156: 505–509.
[107]  Daniels CW (1911) Cases of trypanosomiasis in England, mainly at the London School of Tropical Medicine. J Lond Sch Trop Med 1: 67–79.
[108]  Duren A, van den Branden F (1934) Sur un cas de trypanosomiase humaine a evolution latente. Ann Soc Belg Med Trop 14: 437–438.
[109]  Moustardier G, Sice A, Mercier H, Varneau N (1934) Trypanosomiase humaine latente. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 318–321.
[110]  Grant J, Anderson M, Thompson RB (1944) Case of African sleeping sickness. Lancet 624–625. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(00)45987-8
[111]  Robinson B, Clark RM, King JF, Hurt B, Mohr JA (1980) Chronic Gambian trypanosomiasis. South Med J 73: 516–518. doi: 10.1097/00007611-198004000-00032
[112]  Martin L, Darre H (1914) Documents sur la trypanosomiase humaine. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 7: 711–716.
[113]  Blanchard M, Toullec F (1931) Un cas de trypanosomiase africaine a evolution lente. Marseille Medicale 68: 110–112.
[114]  Moyne Riou (1933) Un cas de trypanosomiase a evolution latente anormalement prolongee. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 26: 1090–1091.
[115]  Sartory A, Lasseur P, Brissaud H (1915) Un cas de trypanosomiase chez un homme ayant quitté l'Afrique depuis 8 ans. Bulletin de l'Academie de Medecine 75: 631–633.
[116]  Baonville H, Ley J, Titeca J (1934) Psychose hallucinatoire chez un trypanosomé. Journal belge de neurologie et psychiatrie 34: 129–138.
[117]  Pinard M, Brumpt L, Raymoneau M (1939) Présentation d'un malade atteint de trypanosomiase révélée tardivement par des convulsions et du prurit. Bull et Mém de la Soc Méd H?p de Paris 55: 324–328.
[118]  Collomb H, Gallais P, Planques L (1956) La trypanosomiase chez l'Africain transplante. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 900–912.

Full-Text

Contact Us

service@oalib.com

QQ:3279437679

WhatsApp +8615387084133