The calcium to magnesium ratio plus adequate vitamin D greatly determine success or not in the immune battle against pathogens and cancer, not to mention cardiovascular disease. Ionized calcium and magnesium in normal, healthy individuals can be calculated and a ratio determined from serum levels. Using widely accepted laboratory reference range values and NHANES data, the recommended daily allowances from the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences for calcium, magnesium, and D3 (cholecalciferol) are objectively refuted mathematically and physiologically. Midrange values for both cations, despite RDA sufficiency, are shown to be unattainable without secondary hyperparathyroidism (high parathormone (PTH), low D) or hypoparathyroidism (low PTH, high iCa:iMg) at the officially designated level of 25(OH)D sufficiency (30 ng/mL). Calcium and magnesium utilize the same calcium sensing receptor (CaSR) not only on cell membranes but also on organelle membranes. Intramitochondrial hydroxylation of chole-calciferol can become compromised. An imbalanced intake of calcium and magnesium can impact the efficacy of vitamin D supplementation. Several pertinent articles underscoring these conclusions are analyzed in detail. The impact of an imbalanced Ca:Mg ratio on Covid-19, Long Covid and vaccination is also discussed.
Cite this paper
Chambers, P. (2022). Ca:Mg D, the Shield that Interdicts the Crown Viruses and Vaccines. Open Access Library Journal, 9, e9249. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1109249.
Workinger, J.L., Doyle, R.P. and Bortz, J. (2018) Challenges in the Diagnosis of Magnesium Status. Nutrients, 10, Article 1202. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10091202
Wacker, M. and Holick, M.F. (2018) Vitamin D—Effects on Skeletal and Extraskeletal Health and the Need for Supplementation. Nutrients, 5, 111-148.
https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5010111
Zhao, J., Giri, A., Zhu, X., et al. (2019) Calcium: Magnesium Intake Ratio and Colorectal Carcinogenesis, Results from the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial. British Journal of Cancer, 121, 796-804.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41416-019-0579-2
Dai, Q., Sandler, R., Barry, E., Summers, R., Grau, M. and Baron, J. (2012) Calcium, Magnesium, and Colorectal Cancer. Epidemiology, 23, 504-505.
https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e31824deb09
Costello, R., Rosanoff, A., Dai, Q, Saldanha, L.G. and Potischman, N.A. (2021) Perspective: Characterization of Dietary Supplements Containing Calcium and Magnesium and Their Respective Ratio—Is a Rising Ratio a Cause for Concern? Advances in Nutrition, 12, 291-297. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmaa160
Dai, Q., Motley, S.S., Smith Jr., J.A., Concepcion, R., Barocas, D., Byerly, S. and Fowke, J.H. (2011) Blood Magnesium, and the Interaction with Calcium, on the Risk of High-Grade Prostate Cancer. PLOS ONE, 6, e18237.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0018237
Zhu, X., Borenstein, A.R, Zheng, Y., Zhang, W., Seidner, D.L., Ness, R., et al. (2020) Ca:Mg Ratio, APOE Cytosine Modifications, and Cognitive Function: Results from a Randomized Trial. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 75, 85-98.
https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-191223
Tulloch, J., Leong, L., Chen, S., Keene, C.D., Millard, S., Shutes-David, A., et al. (2018) APOE DNA Methylation Is Altered in Lewy Body Dementia. Alzheimer’s and Dementia, 14, 889-894. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2018.02.005
Rooney, M.R., Rudser, K.D., Alonso, A., Harnack, L., Saenger, A.K. and Lutsey, P.L. (2020) Circulating Ionized Magnesium: Comparisons with Circulating Total Magnesium and the Response to Magnesium Supplementation in a Randomized Controlled Trial. Nutrients, 12, Article 263. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12010263
Mathew, A.A. and Panonnummal, R. (2021) ‘Magnesium’—The Master Cation—As a Drug—Possibilities and Evidence. Biometals, 34, 955-986.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10534-021-00328-7
Altura, B.T., Shirey, T.L., Young, C.C., et al. (1994) Characterization of a New Ion Selective Electrode for Ionized Magnesium in Whole Blood, Plasma, Serum, and Aqueous Samples. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation, 54, 21-36. https://doi.org/10.3109/00365519409095208
Micke, O., Vormann, J., Kraus, A. and Kisters, K. (2021) Serum Magnesium: Time for a Standardized and Evidence-Based Reference Range. Magnetic Resonance, 34, 84-89.
https://www.magnesium-ges.de/Micke_et_al._2021.pdf
Rosanoff, A., West, C., Elin, R.J., et al. (2022) Recommendation on an Updated Standardization of Serum Magnesium Reference Ranges. European Journal Nutrition, 61, 3697-3706. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-022-02916-w
Rosanoff, A., Weaver, C.M. and Rude, R.K. (2012) Suboptimal Magnesium Status in the United States: Are the Health Consequences Underestimated? Nutrition Reviews, 70, 153-164. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2011.00465.x
Costello, R.B., Elin, R.J., Rosanoff, A., Wallace, T.C., Guerrero-Romero, F., Hruby, A., et al. (2016) Perspective: The Case for an Evidence-Based Reference Interval for Serum Magnesium: The Time Has Come. Advances in Nutrition, 7, 977-993.
https://doi.org/10.3945/an.116.012765
Liebscher, D.H. and Liebscher, D.E. (2004) About the Misdiagnosis of Magnesium Deficiency. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 23, 730S-731S.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2004.10719416
Thomas, J., Millot, J.M., Sebille, S., Delabroise, A.M., Thomas, E. and Manfait, M. (2000) Free and Total Magnesium in Lymphocytes of Migraine Patients—Effect of Magnesium-Rich Mineral Water Intake. Clinica Chimica Acta, 295, 63-75.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-8981(00)00186-8
Mulquiney, Peter J., and Kuchel, Philip W. (1997) Free Magnesium-Ion Concentration in Erythrocytes by 31P NMR: The Effect of Metabolite: Hemoglobin Interactions. NMR in Biomedicine, 10, 129-137.
https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/wiley/free-magnesium-ion-concentration-in-erythrocytes-by-31-p-nmr-the-MAOMj0MQ1C
Xiong, W., Liang, Y., Li, X., et al. (2016) Erythrocyte Intracellular Mg2 Concentration as an Index of recognition and Memory. Scientific Reports, 6, Article No. 26975.
https://doi.org/10.1038/srep26975
Ulger, Z., Ariogul, S., Cankurtaran, M., et al. (2020) Intra-Erythrocyte Magnesium levels and Their Clinical Implications in Geriatric Outpatients. Journal of Nutrition, Health and Aging, 14, 810-814. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-010-0121-y
Kisters, K., Niedner, W., Fafera, I., and Zidek, W. (1990) Plasma and Intracellular Mg2 Concentrations in Pre-Eclampsia. Journal of Hypertension, 8, 303-306.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00004872-199004000-00002
Cheung, M.M., DeLuccia, R., Ramadoss, R.K., Aljahdali, A., Volpe, S.L., Shewokis, P.A. and Sukumar, D. (2019) Low Dietary Magnesium Intake Alters Vitamin D— Parathyroid Hormone Relationship in Adults Who Are Overweight or Obese. Nutrition Research, 69, 82-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2019.08.003
Veugelers, P.J. and Ekwaru, J.P. (2014) A Statistical Error in the Estimation of the Recommended Dietary Allowance for Vitamin D. Nutrients, 6, 4472-4475.
https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6104472
Reddy, P. and Edwards, L.R. (2019) Magnesium Supplementation in Vitamin D Deficiency. American Journal of Therapeutics, 26, e124-e132.
https://doi.org/10.1097/MJT.0000000000000538
Ginde, A.A., Wolfe, P., Camargo, C.A., et al. (2012) Defining Vitamin D Status by Secondary Hyperparathyroidism in the U.S. Population. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation, 35, 42-48.
Dai, Q., Zhu, X., Manson, J.E., Song, Y., Li, X., Franke, A., et al. (2018) Magnesium Status and Supplementation Influence Vitamin D Status and Metabolism: Results from a Randomized Trial. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 108, 1249-1258.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqy274
Kimball, S.M., Burton, J.M., O’Connor, P.G., and Vieth, R. (2011) Urinary Calcium Response to High Dose Vitamin D3 with Calcium Supplementation in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis. Clinical Biochemistry, 44, 930-932.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2011.04.017
Huang, F., Wang, Z., Zhang, J., Du, W., Su, C. and Jiang, H. (2018) Dietary Calcium intake and Food Sources among Chinese Adults in CNTCS. PLOS ONE, 13, e0205045.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205045
Wark, P.A., Lau, R., Norat, T. and Kampman, E. (2012) Magnesium Intake and Colorectal Tumor Risk: A Case-Control Study and Meta-Analysis. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 96, 622-631. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.111.030924
Pickering, G., Mazur, A., Trousselard, M., Bienkowski, P., Yaltsewa, N., Amessou, M., et al. (2020) Magnesium Status and Stress: The Vicious Circle Concept Revisited. Nutrients, 12, Article 3672. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123672
Kelly, O.J., Gilman, J.C. and Ilich, J.Z. (2018) Utilizing Dietary Micronutrient Ratios in Nutritional Research May Be More Informative than Focusing on Single Nutrients. Nutrients, 10, Article 107. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10010107
DiNicolantonio, J.J. and O’Keefe, J.H. (2021) Magnesium and Vitamin D Deficiency as a Potential Cause of Immune Dysfunction, Cytokine Storm and Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation in Covid-19 Patients. Missouri Medicine, 118, 68-73.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc7861592/
Vardhana, S. and Dustin, M.L. (2022) Magnesium for T Cells: Strong to the Finish! Trends in Immunology, 43, 277-279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.it.2022.02.004
Polonikov, A. (2020) Endogenous Deficiency of Glutathione as the Most Likely Cause of Serious Manifestations and Death in COVID-19 Patients. ACS Infectious Diseases, 6, 1558-1562. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00288
Shchetinin, E., Baturin, V., Arushanyan, E., Bolatchiev, A. and Bobryshev, D. (2022) Potential and Possible Therapeutic Effects of Melatonin on SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Antioxidants, 11, Article 140. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11010140
Schwalfenberg, G.K. (2021) N-Acetylcysteine: A Review of Clinical Usefulness (An Old Drug with New Tricks). Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism, 2021, Article ID: 9949453. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/9949453
Liu, R.M., Liu, Y., Forman, H.J., Olman, M. and Tarpey, M.M. (2004) Glutathione Regulates Transforming Growth Factor-β-Stimulated Collagen Production in Fibroblasts. American Journal of Physiology-Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, 286, L121-L128. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplung.00231.2003
Björkand, S., Ernberg, M. and Bileviciute-Ljungard, I. (2022) Reduced Immune System Responsiveness in Fibromyalgia—A Pilot Study. Clinical Immunology Communications, 2, 46-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clicom.2022.02.003
Morrison, T.E., Mauser, A., et al. (2001) Inhibition of IFN-γ Signaling by an Epstein-Barr Virus Immediate-Early Protein. Immunity, 15, 787-799.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1074-7613(01)00226-6
Sinclair, E., Black, D., Epling, C.L., Carvidi, A., Josefowicz, F.Z., Bredt, B.M., et al. (2004) CMV Antigen-Specific CD4 and CD8 T Cell IFNγ Expression and Proliferation Responses in Healthy CMV-Seropositive Individuals. Viral Immunology, 17, 445-454. https://doi.org/10.1089/vim.2004.17.445
Crook, H., Raza, S., Nowell, J., Young, M. and Edison, P. (2021) Long Covid-Mechanisms, Risk Factors, and Management. BMJ, 374, n1648.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n1648
Ghorbani, Z., Rafiee, P., Haghighi, S., et al. (2021) The Effects of Vitamin D3 Supplementation on TGF-β and IL-17 Serum Levels in Migraineurs: Post Hoc Analysis of a Randomized Clinical Trial. Journal of Pharmaceutical Health Care and Sciences, 7, Article No. 9.https://doi.org/10.1186/s40780-021-00192-0
Yasuda, K., Takeuchi, Y. and Hirota, K. (2019) The Pathogenicity of Th17 Cells in Autoimmune Diseases. Semin Immunopathol, 41, 283-297.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00281-019-00733-8
Dankers, W., Colin, E.M., van Hamburg, J.P. and Lubberts, E. (2017) Vitamin D in Autoimmunity: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Potential. Frontiers in Immunology, 7, Article 697. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2016.00697
Wang, K., Chen, W., Zhang, Z., et al. (2020) CD147-Spike Protein Is a Novel Route for SARS-CoV-2 Infection to Host Cells. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy, 5, Article 283. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-020-00426-x
Bivona, G., Agnello, L. and Ciaccio, M. (2018) The Immunological Implication of the New Vitamin D Metabolism. Central-European Journal of Immunology, 43, 331-334.
https://doi.org/10.5114/ceji.2018.80053
Watanabe, M., Nakamura, K., Kato, M., Okada, T., and Iesaki, T. (2021) Chronic Magnesium Deficiency Causes Reversible Mitochondrial Permeability Transition Pore Opening and Impairs Hypoxia Tolerance in the Rat Heart. Journal of Pharmacological Sciences, 148, 238-247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphs.2021.12.002
Tian, J., Tang, L., Liu, X., Li, Y., Chen, J., Huang, W. and Liu, M. (2022) Populations in Low-Magnesium Areas Were Associated with Higher Risk of Infection in COVID-19’s Early Transmission: A Nationwide Retrospective Cohort Study in the United States. Nutrients, 14, Article 909. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14040909
Sun, J. and Lanier, L. (2011) NK Cell Development, Homeostasis and Function: Parallels with CD8 T Cells. Nature Reviews Immunology, 11, 645-657.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nri3044
Ferreira-Gomes, M., Kruglov, A., Durek, P., et al. (2021) SARS-CoV-2 in Severe COVID-19 Induces a TGF-β-Dominated Chronic Immune Response that Does Not Target Itself. Nature Communications, 12, Article 1961.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-22210-3
Witkowski, M., Tizian, C., Ferreira-Gomes, M., et al. (2021) Untimely TGFβ Responses in COVID-19 Limit Antiviral Functions of NK Cells. Nature, 600, 295-301.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04142-6
Bi, J. (2022) NK Cell Dysfunction in Patients with COVID-19. Cellular and Molecular Immunology, 19, 127-129. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41423-021-00825-2
Jiang, F., Yang, Y., Xue, L., Li, B. and Zhang, Z. (2017) 1α,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Attenuates TGF-β-Induced Pro-Fibrotic Effects in Human Lung Epithelial Cells through Inhibition of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition. Nutrients, 9, Article 980.
https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9090980
Isik, S., Ozuguz, U., Tutuncu, Y.A., Akbaba, G., Helvaci, N., Guler, S., et al (2011) Serum Transforming Growth Factor-Beta Levels in Patients with Vitamin D Deficiency. European Journal of Internal Medicine, 23, 93-97.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejim.2011.09.017
Yadav, H., Quijano, C., Kamaraju, A.K., Gavrilova, O., Malek, R., Chen, W., et al. (2011) Vitamin D Supplementation Decreases TGF-β1 Bioavailability. Protection from Obesity and Diabetes by Blockade of TGF-β/Smad3 Signaling. Cell Metabolism, 14, 67-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2011.04.013
Yong-Chao, Q., Chen, Y.-L., Pan, Y.-H., Ling, W., Tian, F., Zhang, X.X., et al. (2017) Changes of Transforming Growth Factor Beta 1 in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Diabetic Nephropathy: A PRISMA-Compliant Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Medicine, 96, e6583. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000006583
Mahmudpour, M., Roozbeh, J., Keshavarz, M., Farrokhi, S. and Nabipour, I. (2020) Angiotensin II Stimulates Canonical TGF-β Signaling Pathway through Angiotensin Type 1 Receptor to Induce Granulation Tissue Contraction. Journal of Molecular Medicine, 93, 289-302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00109-014-1211-9
Mahmudpour, M., Roozbeh, J., Keshavarz, M., Farrokhi, S.and Nabipour, I. (2020) COVID-19 Cytokine Storm: The Anger of Inflammation. Cytokine, 133, Article ID: 155151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cyto.2020.155151
Barros-Martins, J., Förster, R. and Bosnjak, B. (2022) NK Cell Dysfunction in Severe COVID-19: TGF-β-Induced Downregulation of Integrin Beta-2 Restricts NK Cell Cytotoxicity. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy, 7, Article 32.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-022-00892-5
Lin, J.T., Martin, S.L., Xia, L. and Gorham, J.D. (2005) TGF-β1 Uses Distinct Mechanisms to Inhibit IFN-γ Expression in CD4 T Cells at Priming and at Recall: Differential Involvement of Stat4 and T-bet. The Journal of Immunology, 174, 5950-5958.
https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.174.10.5950
Raga, D., Soliman, D., Samaha, D. and Yassin, A. (2016) Vitamin D Status and Its Modulatory Effect on Interferon Gamma and Interleukin-10 Production by Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells in Culture. Cytokine, 85, 5-10.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cyto.2016.05.024
Dhanda, A.D., Felmlee, D., Boeira, P., Moodley, P., Tan, H., et al. (2022) Patients with Moderate to Severe COVID-19 Have an Impaired Cytokine Response with an Exhausted and Senescent Immune Phenotype. Immunobiology, 227, Article 152185.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imbio.2022.152185
Nabi-Afjadi, M., Karami, H., Goudarzi, K., et al. (2021) The Effect of Vitamin D, Magnesium and Zinc Supplements on Interferon Signaling Pathways and Their Relationship to Control SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Clinical and Molecular Allergy, 19, Article 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12948-021-00161-w
Meng, X., Nikolic-Paterson, D. and Lan, H. (2016) TGF-β: The Master Regulator of Fibrosis. Nature Reviews Nephrology, 12, 325-338.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneph.2016.48
Woo, J., Koziol-White, C., Panettieri Jr., R. and Judea, J. (2021) TGF-β: The Missing Link in Obesity-Associated Airway Diseases? Current Research in Pharmacology and Drug Discovery, 2, Article 100016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crphar.2021.100016
Colarusso, C., Maglio, A., Terlizzi, M., Vitale, C., Molino, A., Pinto, A., et al. (2021) Post-COVID-19 Patients Who Develop Lung Fibrotic-Like Changes Have Lower Circulating Levels of IFN-β but Higher Levels of IL-1α and TGF-β. Biomedicines, 9, Article 1931. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9121931
Sutariya, B., Jhonsa, D. and Saraf, M.N. (2016) TGF-β: The Connecting Link between Nephropathy and Fibrosis. Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology, 38, 39-49. https://doi.org/10.3109/08923973.2015.1127382
Katwa, L.C., Mendoza, C. and Clements, M. (2022) CVD and COVID-19: Emerging Roles of Cardiac Fibroblasts and Myofibroblasts. Cells, 11, Article 1316.
https://doi.org/10.3390/cells11081316
Beilfuss, A., Sowa, J., Sydor, S., et al. (2015) Vitamin D Counteracts Fibrogenic TGF-β Signalling in Human Hepatic Stellate Cells both Receptor-Dependently and Independently. Gut, 64, 791-799. https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2014-307024
Li, X.H., Huang, X.P., Pan, L., et al. (2026) Vitamin D Deficiency May Predict a Poorer Outcome of IgA Nephropathy. BMC Nephrology, 17, Article No. 164.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12882-016-0378-4
Tee, J.K., Peng, F., Tan, Y.L., Yu, B. and Ho, H.K. (2018) Magnesium Isoglycyrrhizinate Ameliorates Fibrosis and Disrupts TGF-β-Mediated SMAD Pathway in Activated Hepatic Stellate Cell Line LX2. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 9, Article 1018.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2018.01018
Wensveen, F.N., Jelencic, V. and Polic, B. (2018) NKG2D: A Master Regulator of Immune Cell Responsiveness. Frontiers in Immunology, 9, Article 441.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.00441
Iotti, S., Wolf, F., Mazur, A. and Maier, J.A. (2020) The COVID-19 Pandemic: Is There a Role for Magnesium? Hypotheses and Perspectives. Magnesium Research, 33, 1-7. https://www.jle.com/10.1684/mrh.2020.0465
Lanier, L.L. (2015) NKG2D Receptor and Its Ligands in Host Defense. Cancer Immunology Research, 3, 75-582. https://doi.org/10.1158/2326-6066.CIR-15-0098
Lazarova, M. and Steinle, A. (2019) Impairment of NKG2D-Mediated Tumor Immunity by TGF-β. Frontiers in Immunology, 10, Article 2689.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.02689
Zhang, H.-Y., Liu, Z.-D., Hu, C.-J., Wang, D.-X., Zhang, Y.-B. and Li, Y.-Z. (2011) Up-Regulation of TGF-β1 mRNA Expression in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells of Patients with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. Journal of the Formosan Medical Association, 110, 701-704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfma.2011.09.006
Iempridee, T., Das, S., Xu, I. and Mertz, J.E. (2011) Transforming Growth Factor β-Induced Reactivation of Epstein-Barr Virus Involves Multiple Smad-Binding Elements Cooperatively Activating Expression of the Latent-Lytic Switch BZLF1 Gene. American Society for Microbiology Journal of Virology, 85, 7836-7848.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01197-10
Xu, J., Ahmad, J., Jones, J.F., Dolcetti, R., Vaccher. E., et al. (2000) Elevated Serum Transforming Growth Factor β1 Levels in Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Diseases and Their Correlation with Virus-Specific Immunoglobulin A (IgA) and IgM. American Society for Microbiology Journal of Virology, 74, 2443-2446.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.74.5.2443-2446.2000
Chaigne-Delalande, B., Li, F.-Y., O’Connor, G.M., et al. (2013) Mg2 Regulates Cytotoxic Functions of NK and CD8 T Cells in Chronic EBV Infection through NKG2D. Science, 341, 186-191. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1240094
Mirzaei, H. and Faghihloo, E. (2018) Viruses as Key Modulators of the TGF-β Pathway; A Double-Edged Sword Involved in Cancer. Reviews in Medical Virology, 28, e1967. https://doi.org/10.1002/rmv.1967
Theoharides, T., Stewart, J.M., Hatziagelaki, E. and Kolaitis, G. (2015) Brain “Fog,” Inflammation and Obesity: Key Aspects of Neuropsychiatric Disorders Improved by Luteolin. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 9, Article 225.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00225
Nishio, A., Ishiguro, S. and Miyao, N. (1987) Specific Change of Histamine Metabolism in Acute Magnesium-Deficient Young Rats. Drug-Nutrient Interactions, 5, 89-96.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3111814/
Takemoto, S., Yamamoto, A., Tomonaga, S., Funaba, M. and Matsui, T. (2013) Magnesium Deficiency Induces the Emergence of Mast Cells in the Liver of Rats. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology, 59, 560-563.
https://doi.org/10.3177/jnsv.59.560
Kaieda, S., Fujimoto, K., Todoroki, K., Abe, Y., Kusukawa, J., Hoshino, T., et al. (2022) Mast Cells Can Produce Transforming Growth Factor Β1 and Promote Tissue Fibrosis during the Development of Sjögren’s Syndrome-Related Sialadenitis. Modern Rheumatology, 32, 761-769. https://doi.org/10.1093/mr/roab051
Pinto, M.D., Lambert, N., Downs, C.A., Abrahim, H., Hughes, T.D. and Rahmani, A.M. (2022) Antihistamines for Post Acute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 Infection. The Journal for Nurse Practitioners, 18, 335-338.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nurpra.2021.12.016
Johansson, M., Ståhlberg, M., Runold, M., et al. (2021) Long-Haul Post-COVID-19 Symptoms Presenting as a Variant of Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome: The Swedish Experience. JACC: Case Reports, 3, 573-580.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaccas.2021.01.009
Stewart, J.M., Taneja, I., Glover, J. and Medow, M.S. (2008) Angiotensin II type 1 Receptor Blockade Corrects Cutaneous Nitric Oxide Deficit in Postural Tachycardia Syndrome. American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology, 294, H466-H473. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.01139.2007
Wadhwania, R. (2017) Is Vitamin D Deficiency Implicated in Autonomic Dysfunction? Journal of Pediatric Neurosciences, 12, 119-123.
https://doi.org/10.4103/jpn.JPN_1_17
Hoffman, B. (2021) Hoffman Centre for Integrative and Functional Medicine.
https://hoffmancentre.com/chronic-inflammatory-response-syndrome-cirs-evaluation-and-treatment
Rosanoff, A., Dai, Q. and Shapses, S.A. (2016) Essential Nutrient Interactions: Does Low or Suboptimal Magnesium Status Interact with Vitamin D and/or Calcium Status? Advances in Nutrition, 7, 25-43. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.115.008631