The human leukemia virus HTLV-1 is caused by an oncogenic retrovirus responsible for adult T cell leucemia associated with tropical myelopathy/paraparesis. The mode of transmission of the HTLV-1 virus from one individual to another occurs by following three routes namely: vertical i.e. from mother to child by breastfeeding, sexually and intravenously on contact with blood-contaminated objects. In Africa, the disease remains little known and is endemic in the tropical region of Africa. This review presents the origin of the virus, the molecular aspects as well as the molecules involved in the penetration of the virus into the host cell, the genomic structure. Whatever epidemiological and prevalence data from certain studies carried out in Africa on the human leukemia virus are included in this work.
Cite this paper
Vicento, B. D. and Kamangu, E. N. (2021). Human Leukemia Virus HTLV: An Overview. Open Access Library Journal, 8, e7281. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1107281.
Antoine, G. and Olivier, C. (2012) Epidemiological Aspects and World Distribution of HTLV-1 Infection. Frontiers in Microbiology, 3, 388.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2012.00388
Poiesz, B.J., Ruscetti, F.W., Gazdar, A.F., Bunn, P.A., Minna, J.D. and Gallo, R.C. (1980) Detection and Isolation of Type C Retrovirus Particles from Fresh and Cultured Lymphocytes of a Patient with Cutaneous T-Cell Lymphoma. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 77, 7415-7419. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.77.12.7415
Antoine, G., Barin, F., Vernant, J.C., Gout, O., Maurs, L., Calender, A. and de Thé, G. (1985) Antibodies to Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Type-I in Patients with Tropical Spastic Paraparesis. The Lancet, 2, 407-410.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(85)92734-5
Osame, M., Izumo, S., Igata, A., Matsumoto, M., Matsumoto, T., Sonoda, S., Tara, M. and Shibata, Y. (1986) Blood Transfusion and HTLV-I Associated Myelopathy. The Lancet, 2, 104-105. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(86)91636-3
Takatsuki, K., Matsuoka, M. and Yamaguchi, K. (1996) Adult T-Cell Leukemia in Japan. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology, 13, S15-S19. https://doi.org/10.1097/00042560-199600001-00004
Iwanaga, M., Watanabe, T. and Yamaguchi, K. (2012) Adult T-Cell Leukemia: A Review of Epidemiological Evidence. Frontiers in Microbiology, 3, 322.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2012.00322
Percher, F., Jeannin, P., Martin-Latil, S., Gessain, A., Afonso, P.V., Vidy-Roche, A. and Pierre-Emmanuel, C. (2016) Mother-to-Child Transmission of HTLV-1 Epidemiological Aspects, Mechanisms and Determinants of Mother-to-Child Transmission. Viruses, 8, 40. https://doi.org/10.3390/v8020040
Roucoux, D.F., Wang, B., Smith, D., Nass, C.C., Smith, J., Hutching, S.T., Bruce, N., Tzong-Hae, L., Daniel, M.C. and Edward, L.M. (2005) A Prospective Study of Sexual Transmission of Human T Lymphotropic Virus (HTLV)-I and HTLV-II. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 191, 1490-1497. https://doi.org/10.1086/429410
Murphy, E.L. (2016) Infection with Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Types-1 and -2 (HTLV-1 and -2): Implications for Blood Transfusion Safety. Transfusion Clinique et Biologique, 23, 13-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tracli.2015.12.001
Fox, J.M., Mutalima, N., Molyneux, E., Carpenter, L.M., Taylor, G.P., Bland, M., et al. (2016) Seroprevalence of HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 amongst Mothers and Children in Malawi within the Context of a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of HTLV Seroprevalence in Africa. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 21, 312-324.
https://doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12659
Yoshida, M., Mitoshi, I. and Hinuma, Y. (1982) Isolation and Characterization of Retrovirus from Cell Lines of Human Adult T-Cell Leukemia and Its Implication in the Disease. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 79, 2031-2035. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.79.6.2031
Kalyanaraman, V.S., Samgadharan, M.G., Robert-Gurroff, M., Miyoshi, I., Golde, D. and Gallo, R.C. (1982) A New Subtype of Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus (HTLV-2) Associated with a T-Cellvariant of Hairycell Leukemia. Science, 218, 571-573.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.6981847
Araujo, A. and Hall, W.W. (2004) Human T-Lymphotropicvirus Type II and Neurological Disease. Annals of Neurology, 56, 10-19.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.20126
Mauclère, P., Afonso, P., Meertens, L., Plancoulaine, S., Calattini, S., Froment, A., Van Beveren, M., De Thé, G., Quintana-Murci, L., Mahieux, R. and Gessain, A. (2011) HTLV-2B Strains Similar to Those Found in Several Amerindians Tribes, Are Endemic in Central African Bakola Pygmies. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 203, 1316-1323. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jir031
Mahieux, R., Ibrahim, F., Michel, P., Tekaia, F., Chappey, C., Garin, B., Van Der-Ryst, E., Guillemain, B., Ledru, E., Delaporte, E., De The, G. and Gessain, A. (1997) Molecular Epidemiology of 58 New African Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1 (HTLV-1) Strains: Identification of a New and Distinct HTLV-1 Molecular Subtype in Central Africa and Pygmies. Journal of Virology, 71, 1317-1333.
https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.71.2.1317-1333.1997
Salemi, M., Desmyter, J. and Vandamme, A.M. (2000) Tempo and Mode of Human and Simian T-Lymphotropic Virus (HTLV/STLV) Evolution Revealed by Analyses of Full-Genome Sequences. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 17, 374-386.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026317
Calattini, S., Chevalier, S.A., Duprez, R., Bassot, S. and Froment, A. (2005) Discovery of a New Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus (HTLV-3) in Central Africa. Retrovirology, 2, 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-4690-2-30
Alves-Silva, J., da Silva Santos, M., Guimaraes, P.E., Ferreira, A.C., Bandelt, H.J., Sérgio, D.J. and Vania, F.P. (2000) The Ancestry of Brazilian mtDNA Lineages. The American Journal of Human Genetics, 67, 444-461.
https://doi.org/10.1086/303004
Otsyula, M., Yee, M., Jennings, M., Suleman, M., Gettie, A. and Tarara, R. (1996) Prevalence of Antibodies against Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) and Simian T-Lymphotropic virus (STLV) in a Colony of Non-Human Primates in Kenya, East Africa. Annals of Tropical Medicines and Parasitology, 90, 65-70.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00034983.1996.11813027
Mahieux, R., Chappey, C., Meertens, L., Mauclère, P., Lewis, J. and Gessain, A. (2000) Molecular Characterization and Phylogenetic Analyses of a New Simian T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 in a Wild-Caught African Baboon Papio anubis with an Indeterminate STLV Type 2 like Serology. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 16, 2043-2048. https://doi.org/10.1089/088922200750054774
Mahieux, R., Pecon-Slattery, J. and Gessain, A. (1997) Molecular Characterization and Phylogenetic Analyses of a New, Highly Divergent Simian T-Cell Lymphotropic virus Type 1 (STLV-1 marc1) in Macaca arctoides. Journal of Virology, 71, 6253-6258. https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.71.8.6253-6258.1997
Koralnik, I.J., Boeri, E., Saxinger, W.C., Monico, A.L., Fullen, J., Antoine, G., Guo, H.G., Gallo, R.C., Markham, P. and Kalyanaraman, V. (1994) Phylogenetic Associations of Human and Simian T-Cell Leukemia/Lymphotropic Virus Type I Strains: Evidence for Interspecies Transmission. Journal of Virology, 68, 2693-2707.
https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.68.4.2693-2707.1994
Mahieux, R., Chappey, C., Georges-Courbot, M.C., Dubreuil, G., Mauclere, P., Georges, A. and Gessain, A. (1998) Simian T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 from Mandrillus sphinx as a Simian Counterpart of Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 Subtype D. Journal of Virology, 72, 10316-10322.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.72.12.10316-10322.1998
Cassar, O., Capuano, C., Bassot, S., Charavay, F., Duprez, R., Afonso, P.V., Abel, M., Walter, H., Mera, W., Martin, P.M., Chungue, E. and Gessain, A. (2007) Human T Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 Subtype C Melanesian Genetic Variants of the Vanuatu Archipel Ago and Solomon Islands Share a Common Ancestor. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 196, 510-521. https://doi.org/10.1086/519167
Ibrahim, F., De Thé, G. and Gessain, A. (1995) Isolation and Characterization of a New Simian T-Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1 from Naturally Infected Celebes Macaques (Macaca tonkeana): Complete Nucleotide Sequence and Phylogenetic Relationship with the Australo-Melanesian Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1. Journal of Virology, 69, 6980-6993.
https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.69.11.6980-6993.1995
Slattery, J.P., Franchini, G. and Gessain, A. (1996) Genomic Evolution, Patterns of Global Dissemination, and Interspecies Transmission of Human and Simian T-Cell Leukemia/Lymphotropic Viruses. Genome Research, 9, 525-540.
Gessain, A., Gallo, R.C. and Franchini, G. (1992) Low Degree of Human T-Cell Leukemia/Lymphoma Virus Type I Genetic Drift in Vivo as a Means of Monitoring Viral Transmission and Movement of Ancient Human Populations. Journal of Virology, 66, 2288-2295. https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.66.4.2288-2295.1992
Van Dooren, S., Gotuzzo, E., Salemi, M., Watts, D., Audenaert, E., Duwe, S., Ellerbrok, H., Grassmann, Hagelberg, E., Desmyter, J. and Vanadamme, A.M. (1998) Evidence for a Post-Columbian Introduction of Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 Corrected in Latina America. Journal of General Virology, 79, 2695-2708. https://doi.org/10.1099/0022-1317-79-11-2695
Locatelli, S. and Peeters, M. (2012) Cross-Species Transmission of Simian Retroviruses: How and Why They Could Lead to the Emergence of New Diseases in the Human Population. AIDS, 26, 659-673.
https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e328350fb68
Mirdad, K., Augustin, M.O., Sonia, L.D., Etenna, Mélanie, C., Maria, M., Renaud, M. and Antoine, G. (2015) Origin of HTLV-1 in Hunters of Nonhuman Primates in Central Africa. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 211, 361-365.
https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiu464
Goubau, P., Van Brussel, M., Vandamme, A.M., Liu, H.F. and Desmyter, J. (1994) A Primate T-Lymphotropic Virus, PTLV-L, Different from Human T-Lymphotropic Viruses Types I and II, in a Wild-Caught Baboon (Papio hamadryas). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 91, 2848-2852. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.91.7.2848
Van Brussel, M., Goubau, P., Rousseau, R., Desmyter, J. and Vandamme, A.M. (1996) The Genomic Structure of the New Primate T-Lymphotropic Virus, STLV-PH969, Differs from That of Simian T-Lymphotropic Virus Type I and Human T-Lympho- tropic Virus Type I and II. Journal of General Virology, 77, 347-358.
https://doi.org/10.1099/0022-1317-77-2-347
Giri, A., Markham, P., Digilio, L., Hurteau, G., Gallo, R.C. and Franchini, G. (1994) Isolation of a Novel Simian T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus from Pan paniscus That Is Distantly Related to the Human T-Cell Leukemia/Lymphotropic Virus Types I and II. Journal of Virology, 68, 8392-8395.
https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.68.12.8392-8395.1994
Liu, H.F., Vandamme, A.M., Van Brussel, Desmyter, J. and Goubau, P. (1994) New Retroviruses in Human and Simian T-Lymphotropic Viruses. The Lancet, 344, 265-266. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(94)93032-5
Digilio, L., Giri, A., Cho, N., Slattery, J., Markham, P. and Franchini, G. (1997) The Simian T-Lymphotropic/Leukemia Virus from Pan paniscus Belongs to the Type 2 Family and Infects Asian Macaques. Journal of Virology, 71, 3684-3692.
https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.71.5.3684-3692.1997
Van Brussel, M., Liu, H.F., Gabriels, J., Salemi, M., Goubau, P., Desmyter, J.M. and Vandamme, A.M. (1998) The New Simian T-Lymphotropic Virus STLV-2 PP1664 from Pan paniscus Is Distinctly Related to HTLV-2 and Has a Different Genomic Organization. Virology, 243, 366-379.
Vandamme, A.M., Liu, H.F., Van Brussel, M., De Meurichy, W., Desmyter, J. and Goubau, P. (1996) The Presence of a Divergent T-Lymphotropic Virus in a Wild-Caught Pygmy Chimpanzee (Pan paniscus) Supports an African Origin for the Human T-Lymphotropic/Simian T-Lymphotropic Group of Viruses. Journal of General Virology, 77, 1089-1099. https://doi.org/10.1099/0022-1317-77-5-1089
Froment, A., Delaporte, E., Dazza, M.C. and Larouze, B. (1993) HTLV-II among Pygmies from Cameroon. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 8, 707.
https://doi.org/10.1089/aid.1993.9.707
Gessain, A., Mauclere, P., Froment, A., Biglione, M., Hesran, J.Y.L., Tekaia, F., Millan, J. and De The (1995) Isolation and Molecular Characterization of a Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type II (HTLV-II), Subtype B, from a Healthy Pygmy Living in a Remote Area of Cameroon: An Ancient Origin for HTLV-II in Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 92, 4041-4045. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.92.9.4041
Goubau, P., Liu, H.F., De Lange, G.G., Vandamme, A.M. and Desmyter, J. (1993) HTLV-II Seroprevalence in Pygmies across Africa since 1970. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 9, 709-713. https://doi.org/10.1089/aid.1993.9.709
Goubau, P., Vandamme, A.M., Beuselinck, K. and Desmyter, J. (1996) Proviral HTLV-I and HTLV-II in the Efe Pygmies of Northeastern Zaire. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology, 12, 208-210.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00042560-199606010-00016
Antoine, G. and Mahieux, R. (1999) Epidemiology, Origins and Genetic Diversity of HTLV-1 Retrovirus and STLV-1 Simian Affiliated Retroviruses. 3e colloque du Réseau international des Instituts Pasteur et instituts Pasteur de Paris.
Pique, C. and Jones, K.S. (2012) Pathways of Cell-Cell Transmission of HTLV-1. Frontiers in Microbiology, 3, 378. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2012.00378
Gerges, R., Renaud, M. and Hélène, D. (2015) Intercellular Transmission of HTLV-1: Not All Mechanisms Have Been Revealed. Médecine/Sciences (Paris), 31, 629-637. https://doi.org/10.1051/medsci/20153106016
Shirinian, M., Kfoury, Y., Dassouki, Z., El-Hajj, H. and Bazarbachi, A. (2013) Tax-1 and Tax-2 Similarities and Differences: Focus on Post-Translational Modifications and NF-Kappa B Activation. Frontiers in Microbiology, 4, 23.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2013.00231
Feuer, G. and Green, P.L. (2005) Comparative Biology of Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 (HTLV-1) and HTLV-2. Oncogene, 24, 5996-6004.
https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1208971
Gitlin, S.D., Lindholm, P.F., Marriott, S.J. and Brady, J.N. (1991) Transdominant Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 TAX1 Mutant That Fails to Localize to the Nucleus. Journal of Virology, 65, 2612-2621.
https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.65.5.2612-2621.1991
Smith, M.R. and Greene, W.C. (1992) Characterization of a Novel Nuclear Localization Signal in the HTLV-I Tax Transactivator Protein. Virology, 187, 316-320.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0042-6822(92)90320-O
Turci, M., Romanelli, M.G., Lorenzi, P., Righi, P. and Bertazzoni, U. (2006) Localization of Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type II Tax Protein Is Dependent upon a Nuclear Localization Determinant in the N-Terminal Region. Gene, 3, 119-124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2005.09.043
Alefantis, T., Barmak, K., Harhaj, E.W., Grant, C. and Wigdahl, B. (2003) Characterization of a Nuclear Export Signal within the Human T Cell Leukemia Virus Type I Transactivator Protein Tax. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 278, 21814-21822. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M211576200
Chevalier, S.A., Meertens, L., Calattini, S., Gessain, A., Kiemer, L. and Mahieux, R. (2005) Presence of a Functional But Dispensable Nuclear Export Signal in the HTLV-2 Tax Protein. Retrovirology, 2, 70. https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-4690-2-70
Basbous, J., Bazarbachi, A., Granier, C., Devaux, C. and Mesnard, J.M. (2003) The Central Region of Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1 Tax Protein Contains Distinct Domains Involved in Subunit Dimerization. Journal of Virology, 77, 13028-13035.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.77.24.13028-13035.2003
Boxus, M., Twizere, J.C., Legros, S., Dewulf, J.F., Kettmann, R. and Willems, L. (2008) The HTLV-1 Tax Interactome. Retrovirology, 5, 76.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-4690-5-76
Meertens, L., Chevalier, S., Weil, R., Gessain, A. and Mahieux, R. (2004) A 10-Amino Acid Domain within Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1 and Type 2 Tax Protein Sequences Is Responsible for Their Divergent Subcellular Distribution. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 279, 43307-43320.
https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M400497200
Turci, M., Lodewick, J., Righi, P., Polania, A., Romanelli, M.G., Bex, F. and Umberto, B. (2009) HTLV-2B Tax Oncoprotein Is Modified by Ubiquitination and Sumoylation and Displays Intracellular Localization Similar to Its Homologue HTLV-1 Tax. Virology, 386, 6-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2009.01.003
Jones, K.S., Lambert, S., Bouttier, M., Laurence, B. and Franck, W.R. (2011) Molecular Aspects of HTLV-1 Entry: Functional Domains of the HTLV-1 Surface Subunit (SU) and Their Relationships to the Entry Receptors. Viruses, 3, 794-810.
https://doi.org/10.3390/v3060794
Takenouchi, N., Jones, K.S., Lisinski, I., Kazumori, F., Karen, Y., Samuel, W.C., Francis, W.R. and Steven, J. (2007) GLUT1 Is Not the Primary Binding Receptor But Is Associated with Cell-to-Cell Transmission of Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1. Journal of Virology, 81, 1506-1510. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01522-06
Manel, N., Battini, J.L. and Sitbon, M. (2005) Human T Cell Leukemia Virus Envelope Binding and Virus Entry Are Mediated by Distinct Domains of the Glucose Transporter GLUT1. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 280, 29025-29029.
https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M504549200
Cheng, W., Fu, D., Wei, Z.F., et al. (2014) NRP-1 Expression in Bladder Cancer and Its Implications for Tumor Progression. Tumor Biology, 35, 6089-6094.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13277-014-1806-3
Parker, M.W., Xu, P., Guo, H.F. and Vander-Kooi, C.W. (2012) Mechanism of Selective VEGF-A Binding by Neuropilin-1 Reveals a Basis for Specific Ligand Inhibition. PLoS ONE, 7, e49177. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0049177
Jain, P., Manuel, S.L., Khan, Z.K., Sharon, L.M., Yaya, A., Kevin, Q. and Brian, W. (2009) DC-SIGN Mediates Cell-Free Infection and Transmission of Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 by Dendritic Cells. Journal of Virology, 83, 10908-10921. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01054-09
Jin, Q., Agrawal, L., Vanhorn-Ali, Z. and Alkhatib, G. (2006) GLUT-1-Independent Infection of the Glioblastoma/Astroglioma U87 Cells by the Human T Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1. Virology, 353, 99-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2006.05.003
Jin, Q., Alkhatib, B., Cornetta, K. and Alkhatib, G. (2010) Alternate Receptor Usage of Neuropilin-1 and Glucose Transporter Protein 1 by the Human T Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1. Virology, 396, 203-212.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2009.10.015
Gasmi, M., Farouqui, B., D’incan, M. and Desgranges, C. (1994) Long Terminal Repeat Sequence Analysis of HTLV-I Molecular Variants Identified in Fourth North African Patients. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 10, 1313-1315.
https://doi.org/10.1089/aid.1994.10.1313
Miura, T., Fukunaga, T., Igarashi, T., Yamashita, M., Ido, E., Funahashi, S., Ishida, T., Washio, K., Ueda, S. and Hahimoto, K. (1994) Phylogenetic Subtypes of Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Type I and Their Relations to the Anthropological Background. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 91, 1124-1127. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.91.3.1124
Vidal, A.U., Gessain, A., Yoshida, M., Mahieux, R., Nishioka, K., Tekaia, F., Rosen, L. and de The, G. (1994) Molecular Epidemiology of HTLV-I in Japan: Evidence for Two Distinct Ancestral Lineages with a Particular Geographical Distribution. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 10, 1557-1566.
https://doi.org/10.1089/aid.1994.10.1557
Vidal, A.U., Antoine, G., Yoshida, M., Tekaia, F., Garin, B., Guilleman, B., Schulz, T., Farid, R. and de The, G. (1994) Phylogenetic Classification of HTLV-I Genotypes in 5 Major Molecular and Geographical Subtypes. Journal of General Virology, 75, 3655-3666. https://doi.org/10.1099/0022-1317-75-12-3655
Vandamme, A.M., Liu, H.F., Goubau, P. and Desmyter, J. (1994) Primate T-Lym- photropic Virus Type I LTR Sequence Variation and Its Phylogenetic Analysis: Compatibility with an African Origin of PTLVI. Virology, 202, 212-223.
https://doi.org/10.1006/viro.1994.1337
Van dooren, Gotuzzo, S., Salemi, E., Watts, D., Audenaert, E., Duwe, S., Ellerbrok, H., Grassmann, R., Hagelberg, E., Desmyter, J. and Vandamme, A.M. (1998) Evidence for a Post-Columbian Introduction of Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus in Latin America. Journal of General Virology, 79, 2695-2708.
https://doi.org/10.1099/0022-1317-79-11-2695
Voevodin, A. and Gessain, A. (1997) Common Origin of Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Type-I from Iran, Kuwait, Israel and La Réunion Island. Journal of Medical Virology, 52, 77-82.
https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9071(199705)52:1<77::AID-JMV12>3.0.CO;2-Y
Yamashita, M., Ido, E., Miura, T. and Hayami, M. (1996) Molecular Epidemiology of HTLV-I in the World. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology, 13, S124-S131.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00042560-199600001-00021
Antoine, G., Boeri, E., Yanagihara, R., Gallo, R.C. and Franchini, G. (1993) Complete Nucleotide Sequence of a Highly Divergent Human T-Cell Leukemia (Lymphotropic) Virus Type I (HTLV-I) Variant from Melanesia: Genetics and Phylogenetic Relationship to HTLV-I Strains from Other Geographical Regions. Journal of Virology, 67, 1015-1023. https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.67.2.1015-1023.1993
Antoine, G., Yanagihara, R., Franchini, G., Garruto, R.M., Jenkins, C.L., Ajdukiewicz, A.B., Gallo, R.C. and Gajdusek, D.C. (1991) Highly Divergent Molecular Variants of Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Type I from Isolated Populations in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 88, 7694-7698.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.88.17.7694
Saksena, N.K., Sherman, M.P., Yanagihara, R., Dube, D.K. and Poiesz, B.J. (1992) LTR Sequence and Phylogenetic Analyses of a Newly Discovered Variant of HTLV-I Isolated from the Hagahai of Papua New Guinea. Virology, 189, 1-9.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0042-6822(92)90675-F
Yanagihara, R. (1994) Geographic-Specific Genotypes or Topotypes of HTLV-1 as Markers for Early and Recent Migrations of Human Populations. Advances in Virus Research, 43, 147-186. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-3527(08)60048-2
Chen, J., Zekeng, L., Yamashita, M., Takehisa, J., Miura, T., Ido, E., Mboudjeka, I., Tsague, J.M., Hayami, M. and Kaptue, L. (1995) HTLV Type I Isolated from a Pygmy in Cameroon Is Related to But Distinct from the Known Central African Type. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 11, 1529-1531.
https://doi.org/10.1089/aid.1995.11.1529
Mboudjeka, I., Zekeng, L., Yamashita, M., Takehisa, J., Miura, T., Ido, E, Sadayuki, O., Mikio, I., Kaptue, L. and Masanori, H. (1997) Prevalence and Phylogenetic Analysis of HTLV-1 Isolates in Cameroon, Including Those of the Baka Pygmy. Japanese Journal of Cancer Research, 88, 619-624.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1349-7006.1997.tb00427.x
Moynet, D., Cosnefroy, J.Y., Bedjabaga, I., Roelants, G., Georges-courbot, M.C. and Guillemain, B.(1995) Identification of New Genetic Subtypes of Human T Cell Leukemia Virus Type I in Gabon from Encoding Sequence of Surface Envelope Glycoprotein. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 11, 1407-1411.
https://doi.org/10.1089/aid.1995.11.1407
Salemii, M., Van, D.S., Audenaert, E., Delaporte, E., Goubau, P., Demyster, J. and Vandamme, A.M. (1998) Two New Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Type I Phylogenetic Subtypes in Seroindeterminates, a Mbuti Pygmy and a Gabones, Have Closest Relatives among African STLV-I Strains. Virology, 246, 277-287.
https://doi.org/10.1006/viro.1998.9215
Philippe, V.A., Olivier, C. and Antoine, G. (2019) Molecular Epidemiology, Genetic Variability and Evolution of HTLV-1 with Special Emphasis on African Genotypes. Retrovirology, 16, 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12977-019-0504-z
Vidal, A.U., Gessain, A., Yoshida, M., Tekaia, F., Garin, B., Guillemain, B., Schulz, T., Farid, R. and De The, G. (1994) Phylogenetic Classification of Human T Cell Leukaemia/Lymphoma Virus Type I Genotypes in Five Major Molecular and Geographical Subtypes. Journal of General Virology, 75, 3655-3666.
https://doi.org/10.1099/0022-1317-75-12-3655
Trevino, A., Alcantara Jr., Benito, R., Caballero, E., Aguilera, A., Ramos, J.M., de Mendoza, C., Rodriguez, C., Garcia, J. and Rodriguez-Iglesias, M. (2014) Molecular Epidemiology and Clinical Features of T Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 Infection in Spain. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 30, 856-862.
https://doi.org/10.1089/aid.2013.0128
Zehender, G., Ebranati, E., De Maddalena, C., Gianelli, E., Riva, A., Rusconi, S., Massetto, B., Rankin, F., Acurie, M. and Galli, M. (2008) Description of a Trans-Sa- haran Strain of Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 in West Africa. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 47, 269-273.
https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0b013e31816649a4
Mahe, A., Meertens, L., Ly, F., Sow, P.S., Diop, C.T., Samb, N.D., Diop, O.M., Valensi, F. and Gessain, A. (2004) Human T-Cell Leukaemia/Lymphoma Virus Type 1-Associated Infective Dermatitis in Africa: A Report of Five Cases from Senegal. British Journal of Dermatology, 150, 958-965.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2004.05834.x
Diop, S., Calattini, S., Abah-Dakou, J., Thiam, D., Diakhate, L. and Gessain, A. (2006) Seroprevalence and Molecular Epidemiology of Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1 (HTLV-1) and HTLV-2 in Blood Donors from Dakar, Senegal. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 44, 1550-1554.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.44.4.1550-1554.2006
Mahieux, R., Ibrahim, F., Mauclere, P., Herve, V., Michel, P., Tekaia, F., Chappey, C., Garin, B., Van Der Ryst, E., Guillemain, B., et al. (1997) Molecular Epidemiology of 58 New African Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1 (HTLV-1) Strains: Identification of a New and Distinct HTLV-1 Molecular Subtype in Central Africa and in Pygmies. Journal of Virology, 71, 1317-1333.
https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.71.2.1317-1333.1997
Antoine, G., Gallo, R.C. and Franchini, G. (1992) Low Degree of Human T-Cell Leukemia/Lymphoma Virus Type I Genetic Drift in Vivo as a Means of Monitoring Viral Transmission and Movement of Ancient Human Populations. Journal of Virology, 66, 2288-2295. https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.66.4.2288-2295.1992
Brucato, N., Cassar, O., Tonasso, L., Tortevoye, P., Migot-Nabias, F., Plancoulaine, S., Guitard, E., Larrouy, G., Antoine, G. and Dugoujon, J.M. (2010) The Imprint of the Slave Trade in an African American Population: Mitochondrial DNA, Y Chromosome and HTLV-1 Analysis in the Noir Marron of French Guiana. BMC Ecology and Evolution, 10, 314. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-10-314
Alcantara, L.C., de Oliveira, T., Gordon, M., Pybus, O., Mascarenhas, R.E., Seixas, M.O., Goncalves, M., Hlela, C., Cassol, S. and Galvao-Castro, B. (2006) Tracing the Origin of Brazilian HTLV-1 as Determined by Analysis of Host and Viral Genes. AIDS, 20, 780-782. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.aids.0000216383.14808.13
Rego, F.F., Alcantara, L.C., Moura Neto, J.P., Miranda, A.C., Pereira Ode, S., Goncalves Mde, S. and Galvao-Castro, B. (2008) HTLV Type 1 Molecular Study in Brazilian Villages with African Characteristics Giving Support to the Post-Columbian Introduction Hypothesis. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 24, 673-677. https://doi.org/10.1089/aid.2007.0290
Amoussa, A.E., Wilkinson, E., Giovanetti, M., De Almeida Rego, F.F., Araujo, T.H., De Souza Goncalves, M., De Oliveira, T. and Alcantara, L.C. (2017) HTLV-1aA Introduction into Brazil and Its Association with the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. Infection, Genetics and Evolution, 48, 95-101.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2016.12.005
Pirayeshfard, L., Sharifi, Z., Amini-Kafiabad, S. and Haghnazari Sadaghiani, N. (2018) Phylogenetic Analysis of HTLV-1 in Iranian Blood Donors, HIV-1 Positive Patients and Patients with Beta Thalassemia. Journal of Medical Virology, 90, 1398-1405. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25192
Mirhosseini, A., Mohareri, M., Arab, R., Rezaee, S.A., Shirdel, A., Koshyar, M.M., Allahyari, A., Bari, A., Rahimi, H., Mozaheb, Z., Bazarbachi, A., Houshang, R. and Hossein, R. (2019) Complete Sequence of Human T Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1 in ATLL Patients from Northeast Iran, Mashhad Revealed a Prematurely Terminated Protease and an Elongated pX Open Reading Frame III. Infection, Genetics and Evolution, 73, 460-469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2019.05.012
Desrames, A., Cassar, O., Gout, O., Hermine, O., Taylor, G.P., Afonso, P.V. and Antoine, G. (2014) Northern African Strains of Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 Arose from a Recombination Event. Journal of Virology, 88, 9782-9788.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01591-14
Talarmin, A., Vion, B., Ureta-Vidal, A., Du Fou, G., Marty, C. and Kazanji, M. (1999) First Seroepidemiological Study and Phylogenetic Characterization of Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type I and II Infection among Amerindians in French Guiana. Journal of General Virology, 80, 3083-3088.
https://doi.org/10.1099/0022-1317-80-12-3083
Fortes-Lima, C., Antoine, G., Ruiz-Linares, A., Bortolini, M.C., Migot-Nabias, F., Bellis, G., Moreno-Mayar, J.V., Restrepo, B.N., Rojas, W., Avendano-Tamayo, E., Gabriel, B., Ludovic, O., Antonio, S., Agnar, H., Thomas, M.P.G., Martin, S., Hannes, S. and Jean-Michel, D. (2017) Genome-Wide Ancestry and Demographic History of African Descendant Maroon Communities from French Guiana and Suriname. Journal of Human Genetics, 101, 725-736.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.09.021
Van Tienen, C., De Silva, T.I., Alcantara, L.C., Onyango, C.O., Jarju, S., Goncalves, N., Vincent, T., Aaby, P., Whittle, H., Van der Loeff, M.S. and Cotton, M. (2012) Molecular Epidemiology of Endemic Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 in a Rural Community in Guinea-Bissau. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 6, e1690.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001690
Hogan, C.A., Iles, J., Frost, E.H., Giroux, G., Cassar, O., Gessain, A., Dion, M.J., Ilunga, V., Rambaut, A., Yengo-Ki-Ngimbi, A.E., Froeda, B., Olivier, G.P. and Jacques, P. (2016) Epidemic History and Iatrogenic Transmission of Blood-Borne Viruses in Mid-20th Century Kinshasa. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 214, 353-360. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiw009
Bonis, J., Preux, P.M., Nzisabira, L., Letenneur, L., Muhirwa, G., Buzingo, T., Kamuragiye, A., Pereux, C., Ngoga, E., Dumas, M., Christophe, P. and Ngoga, M. (1994) HTLV-1 in Burundi (East Africa): Lack of Reactivity to the HTLV-1 Immunodominant Envelope Epitope. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 7, 1099-1100.
Delaporte, E., Dupont, A., Peeters, M., Josse, R., Merlin, M., Schriivers, B., Hamono, L., Bedjabaga, H., Cheringou, F. and Boyer (1988) Epidemiology of HTLV-I in Gabon (Western Equatorial Africa). International Journal of Cancer, 42, 687-689.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.2910420509
De The, Gessain, A., Gazzolo, L., Robert-Guroff, M., Najberg, G., Calender, A., Peti, M., Brubaker, G., Benshiman, F., Fabry, F., Strobel, Y., Robin and Fortune, R. (1985) Comparative Seroepidemiology of HTLV-I and and HTLV-III in the French West Indies and Some African Countries. Cancer Research, 45, 4633s-4636s.
Balogou, A., Grunitzky, Anani, E.K., Kowu, T.K., Sadzo-Hetsu, A., Nubukpo, A. and Dumas, M. (2000) Prevalence of HTLV-1 Virus Infection Prevalence of HTLV-1 Virus Infection in Togo. Bulletin de la Société de Pathologie Exotique, 93, 3-5.
Larsen, O., Andersson, S., Da Silva, Z., Hedegaard, K., Sandström, A., Nauclér, A., Dias, F., Melbye, M. and Aaby, P. (2000) Prevalences of HTLV-1 Infection and Associated Risk Determinants in an Urban Population in Guinea Bissau, West Africa. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 25, 157-163.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00042560-200010010-00010
Mahieux, R., Horal, P., Mauclere, P., Mercereau-Puijalon, O., Guillotte, M., Meertens, L., Murphy, E. and Gessain, A. (2000) Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 Gag Inderteminate Western Blot Patterns in Central Africa: Relationship to Plasmodium falciparum Infection. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 38, 4049-4057.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.38.11.4049-4057.2000
Mauclere, P., Le Hesran, J.Y., Mahieux, R., Salla, Mfoupouendoun, J., Abada, E.T., Millan, J., de the, G. and Gessain, A. (1997) Demographic Ethnic and Geographic Differences between Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus (HTLV) Type I-Seropositive Carriers and Persons with HTLV-I Gag-Indeterminate Western Blots in Central Africa. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 176, 505-509.
https://doi.org/10.1086/514071
Fouchard, N., Mahe, A., Huerre, M., Fraitag, S., Valensi, F., Macintyre, E., Samou, F., Ge de The and Gessain, A. (1998) Cutaneous T Cell Lymphomas: Mycosis Fungoides, Sezary Syndrome and HTLV-I-Associated Adult T Cell Leukemia (ATL) in Mali, West Africa: A Clinical, Pathological and Immunovirological Study of 14 Cases and Review of the African ATL. Leukemia, 12, 578-585.
https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.leu.2400956
Hugon, J., Vallat, J.M., Dumas, M., Verdier, M., Denis, F., Akani, Y.F. and Giordano, C. (1990) Low Prevalence of HTLV-1 Antibodies in the Serum of Patients with Tropical Spastic Paraplegia from the Ivory Coast. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 53, 269. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.53.3.269
Van der Ryst, E., Joubert, G., Smith, M.S., Terblanche, M., Mollentze, F. and Pretorius, A.M. (1996) HTLV-2 Infection in the Free State Region of South Africa: A Sero-Epidemiologic Study. Central African Journal of Medicine, 42, 65-68.
Ampofo, W., Nii-Trebi, N., Ansah, J., Abe, K., Naito, H., Nuyor, V., Brandful, J., Yamamoto, N., Ofori-Adjei and Ishikaya, K. (2002) Prevalence of Blood-Borne Infectious Diseases in Blood Donors in Ghana. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 40, 3523-3525. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.40.9.3523-3525.2002
Dumas, M., Houinato, D., Verdier, M., Zohoum, T., Josse, R., Bonis, J., Zohoum, I., Massougbodji, A. and Denis, F. (1991) Seroepidemiology of Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type I/II Benin (West Africa). AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 7, 447-451. https://doi.org/10.1089/aid.1991.7.447
Gessain, A., Fretz, C., Koulibaly, M., Boudret, M.L., Bah, A., Raphael, M., Ge de The and Fournel, J.J. (1993) Evidence of HTLV-II Infection in Guinea West Africa. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 6, 324-325.
Vanadamme, A.M., Marco, S., Marianne, V.B., Liu, H.F., Kristel, V.L., Marc, V.R., Ludovic, M., Jan, D. and Patrick, G. (1998) African Origin Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Type-2 (HTLV-2) Supported by a Potential New HTLV-2d Subtype in Congolese Bambuti Efe Pygmies. Journal of Virology, 72, 4327-4340.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.72.5.4327-4340.1998
Brites, C., Alencar, R., Gusmao, R., Pedroso, C., Netto, E.M., Pedral-Sampalo, D. and Bardaro, R. (2001) Co-Infection with HTLV-1 Is Associated with a Shorter Survival Time for HIV-1-Infected Patients in Bahia, Brazil. AIDS, 15, 2053-2055.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200110190-00023
Figueroa, J.P., Ward, E., Morris, J., Brathwaite, A.R., Peruga, A., Blattner, W., Vermund, S.H. and Hayes, R. (1997) Incidence of HIV and HTLV-1 Infection among Sexually Transmitted Disease Clinic Attenders in Jamaica. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology, 15, 232-237.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00042560-199707010-00007
Hishida, O., Ayisi, N.K., Aidoo, M., Brandful, J., Ampofo, W., Osei-Kwasi, M., Ido, E., Igarashi, T., Takehisa, J. and Miura, T. (1994) Serological Survey of HIV-1, HIV-2 and HTLV-I for Suspected AIDS Cases in Ghana. AIDS, 8, 1257-1261.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00002030-199409000-00006
Beilke, M.A., Theall, K.P., O’Brien, M., Clayton, J.L., Benjamin, S.M., Winsor, E.L., Katherine, P.T. and Patricia, J.K. (2004) Clinical Outcomes and Disease Progression among Patients Coinfected with HIV and Human T Lymphotropic Virus Types 1 and 2. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 39, 256-263.
https://doi.org/10.1086/422146
Brites, C., Sampaio, J. and Oliveira, A. (2009) HIV/Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Coinfection Revisited: Impact on AIDS Progression. AIDS Reviews, 11, 8-16.
Schechter, M., Harrison, L.H., Halsey, N.A., Trade, G., Santino, M., Moulton, L.H. and Quinn, T.C. (1994) Coinfection with Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type I and HIV in Brazil. Impact on Markers of HIV Disease Progression. JAMA, 271, 353-357. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1994.03510290035033
Sobesky, M., Couppie, P., Pradinaud, R., Godard, M.C., Alvarez, F., Benoit, B. and Lebeux, P. (2000) Coinfection with HIV and HTLV-I and Survival in AIDS Stage. French Guiana Study. La Presse médicale, 29, 413-416.
Brites, C., Oliveira, A. and Netto, E. (2005) Coinfection with HIV and Human T Lymphotropic Virus Type 1: What Is the Real Impact on HIV Disease. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 40, 329-331. https://doi.org/10.1086/426690
Lewis, M.J., Gautier, V.W., Wang, X.P., Kaplan, M.H. and Hall, W.W. (2000) Spontaneous Production of C-C Chemokines by Individuals Infected with Human T Lymphotropic Virus Type II (HTLV-II) Alone and HTLV-II/HIV-1 Coinfected Individuals. Journal of Immunology, 165, 4127-4132.
https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.165.7.4127
Bassini, S., Lopez, M., Toro, C., Jimenez, V., Sempere, J.M., Soriano, V. and Jose, M.B. (2007) Influence of Human T Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type 2 Coinfection on Virological and Immunological Parameters in HIV Type 1-Infected Patients. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 44, 105-110. https://doi.org/10.1086/510076
Turci, M., Pilotti, E., Ronzi, P., Magnani, G., Boschini, A., Parisi, S.G., Donato, Z., Antonella, L., Claudio, C. and Umberto, B. (2006) Coinfection with HIV-1 and Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type II in Intravenous Drug Users Is Associated with Delayed Progression to AIDS. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology, 41, 100-106.
https://doi.org/10.1097/01.qai.0000179426.04166.12
Salou, D., Sara, C., Julienne, A.D., Doudou, T., Lamine, D. and Antoine, G. (2006) Seroprevalence and Molecular Epidemiology of Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1 (HTLV-1) and HTLV-2 in Blood Donors from Dakar, Senegal. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 44, 1550-1554.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.44.4.1550-1554.2006
Patience, U.T., Bernard, N. and Joel, B. (2016) Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Types 1 and 2 Seropositivity among Blood Donors at Mbarara Regional Blood Bank, South Western Uganda. Leukemia Research and Treatment, 2016, Article ID: 1675326. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/1675326
Adele, C.D., Mariana, C.M., Emmanuela, A.S. and Rolanda, C.R. (2010) Prevalence of Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus (HTLV-/2) in Individuals from Public Health Centers in Mozambique. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 26, 559-561.
Ana Carolina, P., Vicente, Eduardo, S.G., Alena, M., Koko, I., Nilesh, B., Celina, M., Abreu, Adolfo, V., Dulce, B., Orlando, C., Ferreira, Amilcar, T. and Ilesh, V. (2011) Genetic Characterization of Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 in Mozambique: Transcontinental Lineages Drive the HTLV-1 Endemic. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 5, e1038.
Manns, Wilks, R.J., Murphy, E.L., Haynes, G., Figueroa, J.P., Barnett, M., et al. (1992) A Prospective Study of Transmission by Transfusion of HTLV-1 and Risk Factors Associated with Seroconversion. International Journal of Cancer, 51, 886-891. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.2910510609
Murphy, E.L. (2016) Infection with Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Types-1 and -2 (HTLV-1 and HTLV-2): Implications for Blood Transfusion Safety. Transfusion Clinique et Biologique, 23, 13-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tracli.2015.12.001
Dhasmana, D. and Taylor, G.P. (2014) Human T-Lymphotropic Virus/HIV Coinfection: A Clinical Review. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases, 27, 16-28.
https://doi.org/10.1097/QCO.0000000000000027
Cooper, S.A., Van de Loeff, M. and Taylor, G.P. (2009) The Neurology of HTLV-1 Infection. Practical Neurology, 9, 16-26. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2008.167155
Gout, O., Baulac, M., Gessain, A., Semah, F., Saal, F., Peries, J., et al. (1990) Rapid Development of Myelopathy after HTLV-1 Infection Acquired by Tranfusion during Cardiac Transplantation. The New England Journal of Medicine, 322, 383-388. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199002083220607.
