全部 标题 作者
关键词 摘要

OALib Journal期刊
ISSN: 2333-9721
费用:99美元

查看量下载量

The Study of Drug Use, Spirituality, Intimacy and Age as Determinants of Antisocial Behaviour among Youths

DOI: 10.4236/oalib.1106431, PP. 1-31

Subject Areas: Criminology

Keywords: Drug Use, Spirituality, Intimacy, Age, Antisocial Behaviour, Youths

Full-Text   Cite this paper   Add to My Lib

Abstract

This study investigated drug use, spirituality, intimacy and age as determinants of antisocial behaviour among youths. Participants were four hundred and sixty eight (468) youths comprising (328) males and (140) females. Their ages ranged between (9 - 25) years, with a mean age of 17 and standard deviation of 8.04. Cross sectional design was adopted. Four instruments were used for data collection: Antisocial Behaviour Scale, Simple Screening Instrument for Substance Abuse and Daily Spiritual Experience Scale validated in Nigeria by the present researcher and Emotional Intimacy Scale. Four hypotheses were tested. Step wise multiple regression analysis indicated that drug use (p < 0.01). The result showed that spirituality, intimacy and age were all shown to be significant of antisocial behaviour; while spirituality, intimacy and age were shown to be negative determinants of antisocial behaviour. Marital status was positively significantly associated with antisocial behaviour, while educational qualification and religious denomination both had negative significant association with antisocial behaviour. Drug use was found to be positively significantly associated with antisocial behaviour while spirituality was positively significantly associated with antisocial behaviour. However, intimacy and age of participants were not significantly associated with antisocial behaviour. The implication of this study is there is urgent need to checkmate the rate of consumption/use of drug especially among the youths and more among the adolescence but more the source of supply.

Cite this paper

Okwudili, A. C. , Chibuike, O. P. , Philip, O. C. , Ekpunobi, C. P. , Okorieh, A. V. , Grace, O. A. and Sunday, E. M. (2020). The Study of Drug Use, Spirituality, Intimacy and Age as Determinants of Antisocial Behaviour among Youths. Open Access Library Journal, 7, e6431. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106431.

References

[1]  Department of Statistics (2010) Census of Population 2010 Statistical Release 1: Demographic Characteristics, Education, Language and Religion. Department of Statistics. Ministry of Trade and Industry, Singapore.
[2]  World Health Organization (WHO) (2008) World Health Organization Suicide Prevention (SUPRE): Retrieved 2008 from June 20. http://www.who.int/mental-health/prevention/Suicide Prevention/en/
[3]  United Nations General Assembly (2008) General Assembly Adopts Resolution Reaffirming Territorial Integrity of Azerbaijan, Demanding Withdrawal of All Armenian Forces. United Nations.
[4]  Dalsgaard, A. and Karen, T. (2008) Youth and the City in the Global South. In Tracking Globalization. Indian University Press, Bloomington.
[5]  Asuquo, P.N., Uwe, E.A. and Ekuri, E.E. (2008) Parenting and Responsibility: Holding Parents Accountable for Children’s Antisocial Practices. Journal of Human Ecology, 24, 51-57. https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2008.11906099
[6]  Ifaturoti, T. (1994) Delinquent Sub-Culture and Violence in Nigerian Universities. In: Albert, I.O., et al., Eds., Urban Management and Urban violence in Africa, Vol. 2, IFRA, Ibadan.
[7]  Bronfrenbrener, U. (1987) Ecological Systems Theory: In: Vasta, R., Ed., 1989 Six Theorities of Child Development: Revised Formulations of Current Issues Vol. 6, JA/Press, Greenwich, Connecticut.
[8]  Azimi, H., Turiman, S. and Ezhar, T. (2000) Youth Life and Thinking Pattern in National Development Faces the Millennium. Kementerian Belia dan, Patrajaya, 57-61.
[9]  Scout, W.R. (2008) Institutions and Organizations: Ideas and Interests. 3rd Edition, Sage Publications, Los Angeles.
[10]  Webster-Stratton, C. and Reid, M.J. (2008) Strengthening Social and Emotional Competence in Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Young Children: Preschool and Kindergarten School-Based Curricula. In: Brown, W.H., Odom, S.L. and McConnell, S. R, Eds., Social Competence of Young Children: Risk, Disability, and Intervention, Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Baltimore, 185-203.
[11]  Bloomquist, M. and Schnell, S. (2005) Helping Children with Aggression and Conduct Problems: Best Practices for Intervention. The Guildford Press, New York.
[12]  Squires, P. (2008) ASBO Nation: The Criminalization of Nuisance. Policy Press, Bristol. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt9qgt9w
[13]  American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th Edition, American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
[14]  The Crime and Disorder Act (1998) UK Public General Acts. http://www.legislation.gov.uk/
[15]  World Health Organization (WHO) (1996) Investing in Health Research and Development. Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on Health Research Relating to Future Intervention, Options. WHO, Geneva.
[16]  Widger, T.A. and Costa Jr., P.T. (1995) Personality and Personality Disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 78-91. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.103.1.78
[17]  Charlebois, P., LeBlanc, M., Gagnon, C., Larvae, S. and Tremblay, R (1993) Age Trends in Early Behavioiural Predictors of Serious Antisocial Behaviours. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioural Assessment, 15, 23-41. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00964321
[18]  Lynam, D.R. (1996) Early Identification of Chronic Offenders Who Is a Fledgling Psychopath? Psychological Bulletin, 120, 209-234. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.209
[19]  Million, T., Davis, R., Escover, L. and Meagher, S. (2000) Personality Disorders in Modern Life. Willey, New York.
[20]  Kraus, G and Reynolds, D.J. (2001) The “a-b-c’s” of the Cluster B’s: Identifying, Understanding and Treating Cluster B Personality Disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 21, 345-373. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(99)00052-5
[21]  Cleckley, H. (1982) The Mask of Sanity. 7th Edition, C. V. Mosby, St Louis. (Original work published 1941).
[22]  Copeland, J., Howard, J., Keogh, T. and Seidler, T (2003) Parents and Correlates of Substance Use among Juvenile Dtainees in New South Wales 1989-1999. Drug and Alcohol Review, 22, 15-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/0959523021000059785
[23]  Pudney, S. (2002) The Road to Ruin? Sequences of Initiation into Drug Use and Offending by Young People in Britain. Home Office Research Study 253, Home Office, London.
[24]  Schoemaker, D.J. (2000) Theories of Delinquency. An Examination of Explanations of Delinquent Behavioiur. 4th Edition, Oxford University Press, New York.
[25]  Fuller, E. (2007) Drug Use, Smoking and Drinking among Young People in England. National Centre for Social Research, National Foundation for Education Research.
[26]  Galaif, E., Sussman, S., Newcomb, M.D. and Locke, T.F. (2007) Suicidality, Depression and Alcohol/Drug Use among Adolescents: A Review of Empirical Findings. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 19, 27-35. https://doi.org/10.1515/IJAMH.2007.19.1.27
[27]  Hussong, A., Curran, P. and Chassin, L. (1998) Pathways of Risk for Accelerated Heavy Alcohol Use among Adolescent Children of Alcoholic Parents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 453-466. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022699701996
[28]  Velleman, R.D.B., Templeton, L.J. and Copello, A.G. (2005) The Role of Family in Preventing and Intervening with Substance Use and Misuse: A Comprehensive Review of Family Interventions, with a Focus on Young People. Drugs and Alcohol Review, 24, 93-109. https://doi.org/10.1080/09595230500167478
[29]  Huizinga, D., Loeber, R. and Thornberry, T. (1995) The Prevention of Serious Delinquency and Violence. In: Howell, J.C., Krisberg, B., Hawkins J.D. and Wilson, J.J., Eds., Sourcebook on Serious, Chronic, & Violent Offenders, Sage, Thousand Oaks.
[30]  Bui, M., Ellickson, P. and Bell, R (2000) Cross-Lagged Relationships among Adolescent Problem Drug Use, Delinquent Behaviour, and Emotional Distress. Journal of Drug Issues, 30, 283-303. https://doi.org/10.1177/002204260003000203
[31]  Ford, C.S. (2005) Patterns of Sesrrcrl Behavior. Harper & Row, New York. (ATG)
[32]  Goldstein, P.J. (1989) Drugs and Crime. In: Weiner, N.A. and Wolfgangf, M.E., Eds., Pathways to Criminals Violence, Sage, Newburry Park, 16-48.
[33]  Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM) Program in the United States, (ICPSR 2994) (1999) Principal Investigator(s): United States Department of Justice. Office of Justice Programs. National Institute of Justice.
[34]  Huizinga, D. and Jakob-Chien, C. (1998) Chapter 4: The Contemporaneous Co-Occurrence of Serious and Violent Juvenile Offending and Other Problem Behaviours. In: Leober, R. and Farrington, D.P., Eds., Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders: Risk Factors and Successful Interventions, Sage Publications, Inc., Thousand Oaks, 47-67. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452243740.n4
[35]  Teplin, L. (2001) Assessing Alcohol, Drug, and Mental Disorders in Juvenile Detainees. U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, Washington DC.
[36]  Weisner, M., Kim, H.K. and Capaldi, D.M. (2005) Developmental Trajectories of Offending: Validation and Prediction to Young Adult Alcohol Use, Drug Use, and Depressive Symptom. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 251-270. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579405050133
[37]  Derision, M., Paredes, A., Bascal, S. and Godwin, F. (1998) Psychological and Psychiatric Consequences of Cocaine. In: Tartar, Ed., Handbook of Substance Abuse: Nemobehavioural Pharmacology, Plenuim Press, New York, 161-185.
[38]  Miller, D.C. (1991) Handbook of Research Design and Social Measurement. 5th Edition.
[39]  Adams, E., Blanken, A., Ferguson, L. and Kopstein, A. (1990) Overview of Selected Drugs Trends. National Institute on Drug Abuse, Rockville.
[40]  Elliot, D., Huizinga, D. and Menard, S. (1989) Multiple Problem You: Delinquency, Substance Use and Mental Health Problems. Springer-Verlag, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-9637-6
[41]  Antonaccio, O., Tittle, C., Botchkovar, E. and Krandidiotis, M. (2010) The Correlates of Crime and Deviance: Additional Evidence. Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, 10, 55-67. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427810365678
[42]  United Nations Office on Drug and Crime (UNODC) (2010) Relatorio mundial sobre drogas WDR. http://www.Unodc.org
[43]  Blair, C. and Wright, B. (2001) If You Love Me, Keeping Commandments: A Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Religion on Crime. Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, 38, 3-21. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427801038001001
[44]  Worthington, S. (2011) Testing the Anti-Deprivation Rule: A Response to “Lehman Brothers and the Anti-Deprivation Principles: Current Uncertainties and Proposals for Reform”. Capital Markets Law Journal, 6, 450-455. https://doi.org/10.1093/cmlj/kmr034
[45]  Mayer, A. (1995) Described Antisocial Behaviour as Repeated Violations of Normative Behaviour Usually Involving Aggression, Vandalism Rule Infraction, Defiance of Adult Authority and Violation of the Social Norms and Norms of Society.
[46]  Reach out.com. What Is Spirituality? http://www.reachout.com/
[47]  Benson, E. (2003) The Many Faces of Perfectionism: The Need for Perfection Comes in Different Flavors, Each Associated with Its Own Set of Problems, Researchers Say. Monitor Staff, 34, 18.
[48]  Ballengar, W. and Rocha, J. (2007) The politics of policies about gangs in Central America. In: Cruse, J.M., Ed., Street Gangs in Central America, UCA Editors, San Salvador, El Salvador, 115-135.
[49]  Regnerus, M.D. and Glen, H.E. (2003) Staying on Track in School: Religious Influences in High-and Low-Risk Settings. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 42, 633-649. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-5906.2003.00208.x
[50]  Flores, E. (2009) I Am Somebody, Barrio Pentecostalism and Gendered Acculturation among Chicago Ex-Gang Me Members. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 32, 996-1016. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870802485507
[51]  Marsal, K. (2009) Obstetric Management of Intrauterine Growth Restriction. Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynecology, 23, 857-870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2009.08.011
[52]  Morris, E.J. (2012) Respect, Protection, Faith and Love: Major Care Constructs Identified without the Substructure of Selected Urban African American Adolescent Gang Members. Journals of Tran-Cultural Nursing, 23, 262-269. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043659612441014
[53]  Catalano, R. and Hawkins, J. (1996) The Social Development Model: A Theory of Antisocial Behaviour. In: Hawkins, J.D., Ed., Delinquency and Crime? Current Theories, Cambridge University Press, New York, 149-197.
[54]  Johnson, B., Jang, S., Larson, D. and Deli, S. (2001) Does Adolescent’s Religious Commitment Matter? A Reexamination of the Effects of Religiosity on Delinquency. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38, 22-44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427801038001002
[55]  Salas-Wright, C.P., Vaugtin, M.G., Hodge, D.R. and Derron, B.E. (2012) Religiosity Profiles of American Youth in Relation to Substance Use, Violence and Delinquency. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 1560-1575. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9761-z
[56]  Benson, P. and Rochlkepartain, E. (2008) Spiritual Development: A Missing Priority in Youth Development. Spiritual Development, 2008, 13-28. https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.253
[57]  King, P.E. and Boyatzis, C.J. (2004) Exploring Adolescent Spiritual and Religious Development, Current and Future Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives. Applied Development Sciences, 8, 2-6. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532480XADS0801_1
[58]  Wrong, S. and Fry, P.S. (1998) The Development of Personal Meaning and Wisdom in Adolescence: Re-Examination of Moderating and Consolidating Factors and Influences. In: Wrong, P.T.P. and Fry, A.S., Eds., The Human Quest for Meaning: A Handbook of Psychological Research and Clinical Application, Erlbaum, Mahwah, 91-110.
[59]  Weeks, G.R. and Treat, S. (2001) Couples in Treatment: Techniques and Approaches for Effective Practice. 2nd Edition, Brunner/Routledge, Philadelphia.
[60]  Butler, M.H., Davis, S.D. and Seedall, R.B. (2008) Common Pitfalls of Beginning Therapies utilizing Enactments. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 34, 329-352. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.2008.00076.x
[61]  Fife, S.T., Weeks, G.R. and Gambescia, N. (2008) Treating Infidelity: An Integrative approach. Family Journal of Counseling & Therapy for Couples and Families, 8, 112-140.
[62]  Popovic, M. (2005) Intimacy and Its Relevance in Human Functioning. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 20, 31-49. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681990412331323992
[63]  Mirgain, S.A. and Cordova, J.V. (2007) Emotion Skills and Marital Health: The Association between Observed and Self-Reported Emotion Skills, Intimacy, and Marital Satisfaction. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26, 983-1009. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2007.26.9.983
[64]  Downey, D.B. (2001) Number of Siblings and Intellectual Development: The Resource dilution Explanation. American Psychologist, 56, 497-504. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.6-7.497
[65]  Selman, R.L. (1990) Fostering Intimacy and Autonomy. In: Damon, W., Ed., Child Development Today and Tomorrow, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
[66]  Furman, W. and Bierman, K.L. (1983) Developmental Changes in Young Children’s Conceptions of Friendship. Child Development, 54, 549-556. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130041
[67]  Oden, S., Hertzberger, S.D., Mangaine, P.L. and Wheeler, V.A. (1984) Children’s Peer-Relationship: An Examination of Social Processes. In: Masters, J.C. and Yarkin-Levin, K., Eds., Boundary Areas in Soda’s, and Developmental Psychology, Academic Press, New York.
[68]  Reiss, H.T. and Farrington, D.P. (1988) Intimacy as an Interpersonal Process. In: Duck, S., Ed., Handbook of Personal Relationships: Theory, Relationships, and Intervention, Wiley, Chichester.
[69]  Kelley, H., Berschied, E., Christensen, A., Harvey, J., Huston, T., Levinger, G, McClintock, E., Peplau, L. and Peterson, D. (1983) Close Relationships. Freeman, New York.
[70]  Laursen, B. (1993) Close Friendships in Adolescence. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
[71]  Erikson, E.H. (1963) Childhood and Society. Norton, New York.
[72]  Mosier, W. (2006) Intimacy. The Key to a Healthy Relationship. Annals of the American Psychotherapy Association, 9, 34-35.
[73]  Grotevant, H.D. and Cooper, C.R. (1985) Patterns of Interactions in Family Relationships and the Development of Identity Exploration in Adolescence. Child Development, 56, 415-428. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129730
[74]  Reis, H.T. and Shaver, P. (1988) Intimacy as an Interpersonal Process. In: Duck, S., Ed., Handbook of Personal Relationships: Theory, Relationships and intervention, Wiley, Chichester.
[75]  Martin, J.L. and Ashby, J.S. (2004) Perfectionism and Fear of Intimacy. The Implication for Relationships. The Family Journal, 12, 368-374. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480704267279
[76]  Shulman, S. (1993) Early and Middle Adolescent Dose Friendship: Typology and Friendship Reasoning. In: Laursen, B., Ed., Close Friendships in Adolescence, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
[77]  Shulman, S., Elicker, J. and Sroufe, L.A. (1994) Stages of Friendship Growth in Preadolescence as Related to Attachment History. Journal Social Personality Relationship, 11, 341-361. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407594113002
[78]  Bernice, L.N. and Dail, A.N. (1987) The Changing Meanings of Age. (Life Flow) Psychology Today, 29, 22-28.
[79]  Moffitt, T.E. (1993) Adolescence-Limited and Life-Course-Persistent Antisocial Behavior: A Developmental Taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674-701. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.100.4.674
[80]  Immanuel, E.U. (2015) Measuring Antisocial Bahaviour. Unpublished Manuscript. Institution, Escalation and Desistance in Juvenile Offending and Their Correlates Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 17, 115-124.
[81]  Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (1994) Simple Screening Instrument for Outreach for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Infectious Diseases (Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series No.11). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville.
[82]  Underwood, L.G. (2011) The Daily Spiritual Experience Scale: Overview and Results. Religions, 2, 29-50. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel2010029
[83]  Onyeizugbo, E.U. (2011) A Scale for Assessing Emotional Intimacy. Unpublished Manuscript.
[84]  Peters, R.H., Greenbaum, P.E, Steinberg, M.L., Carter, C.R., Ortiz, M.M. and Valle, S.K. (2000) Effectiveness of Screening Instruments in Detecting Substance Use Disorders among Prisoners. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 18, 349-358. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0740-5472(99)00081-1
[85]  Underwood, L.G. and Teresi, J.A. (2002) The Daily Spiritual Experience Scale: Development, Theoretical Description, Reliability, Exploratory Factor Analysis, and Preliminary Construct Validity Using Health Related Data. Annuals of Behavioural Medicine, 24, 22-23. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324796ABM2401_04
[86]  Nandi, F.L., Cunha, S.M., Bizarro, L. and Dell’Aglio, D.D. (2012) Drug Use and Antisocial Behaviour among Youth Attending Public Schools in Brazil. Trends in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 34, 80-86. https://doi.org/10.1590/S2237-60892012000200006
[87]  Green, R. and Ross, A. (2010) Young People’s Alcohol Consumption and Its Relationship to Other Outcomes and Behavioir.
[88]  World Health Organization (2010) Contains WHO’s Annual Compilation of Data from Its 193 Members States, and Includes a Summary of Progress towards the Health-Related Millennium Development Goals and Targets. World Health Organization, Geneva.
[89]  Spunt, B., Goldstein, P. and Brownstein, H.H. (1994) Alcohol and Homicide: Interviews with Prison Inmates. Journal of Drugs Issues, 24, 143-163. https://doi.org/10.1177/002204269402400108
[90]  Akers, R. and Sellers, C. (2004) Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application. 4th Edition, Roxbury Publishing, Los Angeles.
[91]  Jessor, R. (1987) Problems-Behaviour Theory, Psychosocial Development, and Adolescent Problem Drinking. British Journal of Addiction, 82, 331-342. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1987.tb01490.x
[92]  Sinha, J.W., Cnaan, R.A. and Gelles, R.J. (2007) Adolesent Risk Behaviours and Religion: Findings from a National Study. Journal of Adolescent, 30, 231-249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.02.005
[93]  Fowler, J.W. (1981) Stages of Faith. Harper and Row, New York.
[94]  Lewis, M.M. (2001) Spiritual, Counseling, and Elderly: An Introduction to the Spiritual life Review. Journal of Adult Development, 8, 231-240. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011390528828
[95]  Fry, P.S. (1998) The Development of Personal Meaning and Wisdom in Adolescence: A Reexamination of Moderating and Consolidating Factors and Influences. In: Wong, P.T.P and Fry, P.S., Eds., The Human Quest for Meaning: A Handbook of Psychological Research and Clinical Applications, Erlbaum, Mahwah, 91-110.
[96]  Booth, M. (1998); Opium: A History. Martin’s Press, New York.
[97]  Evans, N. (1995) A Grammar of Kayarddild. With Historical-Comparative Notes on Tangkic. Mouton Grammar Library, 15, Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110873733
[98]  Pawlak, R. and DeFronzo, J. (1993) Social Bonds, Early Trauma and Smoking: Evidence of the Group-Specific Relevance of Control-Theory. Journal of Drug Education, 23, 201-214. https://doi.org/10.2190/CFU6-BXBG-HQ4M-20T8
[99]  Cochran, J. (1993) The Variable Effects of Religiosity and Denomination on Adolescent Selfreported Alcohol Use by Beverage Type. Journal of Drug Issues, 23, 479-491. https://doi.org/10.1177/002204269302300308
[100]  Benda, B.B. and Crown, R.F. (2001) Are the Effects of Religion on Crime Mediated, Moderated, Misrepresented, by Inappropriate Measure? Journal of Social Service Research, 27, 57-86. https://doi.org/10.1300/J079v27n03_04
[101]  Rachael, D.R., Laura, J.D. and Mikayla, C.U. (2015) Friendship, Negative Peer Experiences, and Daily Positive and Negative Mood. Social Development, 24, 833-851. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12123
[102]  Knack, J.M., Jacquot, C., Jensen-Campbell, L.A. and Malcolm, K.T. (2013) Importance of Having Agreeable Friends in Adolescence (Especially When You Are Not). Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43, 2401-2413. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12188
[103]  You, J.-I. and Bellmore, A. (2011) Relational Peer Victimization and Psychosocial adjustment: The Mediating Role of Best Friendship Qualities. Personal Relationships, 19, 340-353. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2011.01365.x
[104]  Sally, F. and Kay, B. (2013) The Role of Perceived Friendship Self-Efficacy as a Protective Factor against the Negative Effects of Social Victimization. Social Development, 23, 41-60. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12032
[105]  Claes, M.E. (1992) Friendship and Personal Adjustment during Adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 15, 39-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/0140-1971(92)90064-C
[106]  Bowlby, J. (1969) Attachment and Loss. Attachment, Vol. 1, Basic Books, New York.
[107]  Prior, V. and Glaser, D. (2006) Understanding Attachment and Attachment Disorders: Theory, Evidence and Practice. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.
[108]  Donker, A.G., Smeenk, W.H., van der Laan, P. and Verhulst, F.C. (2003) Individual Stability of Antisocial Behavior from Childhood to Adulthood: Testing the Stability Postulate of Moffit’s Developmental Theory. Criminology, 41, 593-609. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb00998.x
[109]  Blumstein, A. and Cohen, J. (1987) Characterizing Criminal Careers. Science, 237, 985-991. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.237.4818.985
[110]  Farrington, D.P. (1986) Age and Crime. Crime and Justice, 7, 189-250. https://doi.org/10.1086/449114
[111]  Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Van Kammen, W.B. and Farrington, D.P. (1989) Development of a New Measure of Self-Reported Antisocial Behavior for Young Children: Prevalence and Reliability. In: Klein, M.W. Ed., Cross-National Research in Self-Reported Crime and Delinquency, Kluwer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 203-225.
[112]  Wong, Y.J., Rew, L. and Slaikeu, K.D. (2006) A Systematic Review of Recent Research on Adolescent Religiosity/Spirituality and Mental Health. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 27, 161-183. https://doi.org/10.1080/01612840500436941
[113]  Huesmann, L.R., Dubow, E.F. and Boxer, P. (2003) Theoretical and Methodological Considerations in Cross-Generational Research on Parenting and Child Aggressive Behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 185-192. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022526325204
[114]  Bowlby, J. (1988) A Secure Base: Parent-Child Attachment and Healthy Human Development. Tavistock Professional Book. Routledge, London.
[115]  Adeoye, M.N. and Muhammed, A.Y. (2005) Terrorism in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic: Implications for Sustainable Democracy and Development. The National Conference on Democracy and Development, Faculty of Business and Social Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin.

Full-Text


comments powered by Disqus

Contact Us

service@oalib.com

QQ:3279437679

WhatsApp +8615387084133

WeChat 1538708413