The aim of this quasi-experimental study was to analyze the changes derived from happiness and optimism interventions in 12 groups of employees chosen at random in two Colombian companies. For the happiness intervention, three conditions were applied: Expressing Gratitude, Acts of Kindness and Pencil in the Mouth. In the case of optimism, three other conditions were used: Breaking the Routine, Reformulating Goals and Resignifying Failure. In addition, an-swers from a control group, a placebo group and another group on a waiting list were included. 93 people completed the questionnaires at both Time 1 (before the intervention) and Time 2 (after the intervention). Testing of related samples was performed to verify the changes according to each condition. The results show that the condition of kindness alone and combined with the reformulation of goals tended to have more positive effects on happiness levels. There were differences in the effectiveness associated with gender and the employees’ previous levels of happiness and optimism. The practical applications of these findings in the work context and their influence on work performance are discussed.
Cite this paper
Sanín-Posada, A. , Soria, M. S. and Vera-Villaroel, P. (2018). Happiness and Optimism Interventions at Work: Gender Differences. Open Access Library Journal, 5, e4842. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1104842.
Seligman, M.E.P., Steen, T.A., Park, N. and Peterson, C. (2005) Positive Psychology Progress: Empirical Validation of Interventions. The American Psychologist, 60, 410-421. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16045394\ nhttps://apps.webofknowledge.com/full_record.do? product=UA&search_mode=AdvancedSearch&qid=2&SID =P2buqYXRSSv6yAuBgKS&page=6&doc=299 https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410
Meyers, C.M., van Woerkom, M. and Bakker, A.B. (2013) The Added Value of the Positive: A Literature Review of Positive Psychology Interventions in Organizations. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 22, 618-632. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2012.694689
Ouweneel, E., Le Blanc, P.M. and Schaufeli, W.B. (2013) Do-It-Yourself. Career Development International, 18, 173-195. http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/10.1108/CDI-10-2012-0102 https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-10-2012-0102
Youssef, C.M. and Luthans, F. (2007) Positive Organizational Behavior in the Workplace: The Impact of Hope, Optimism, and Resilience. Journal of Management, 33, 774-800. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206307305562
Rodríguez-Munoz, A. and Sanz-Vergel, A.I. (2013) Happiness and Well-Being at Work: A special Issue Introduction. Revista de Psicología del Trabajo y de las Organizaciones, 29, 95-97.
https://doi.org/10.5093/tr2013a14
Calderón Hernández, G., álvarez Giraldo, C.M. and Naranjo Valencia, J.C. (2006) Gestión humana en las organizaciones un fenómeno complejo: Evolución, retos, tendencias y perspectivas de investigación. Cuadernos de Administración, 19, 225-254.
Lyubomirsky, S., Dickerhoof, R., Boehm, J.K. and Sheldon, K.M. (2011) Becoming Happier Takes Both a Will and a Proper Way: An Experimental Longitudinal Intervention to Boost Well-Being. Emotion, 11, 391-402. http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0022575 https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022575
Sanín-Posada, A. and Soria, M.S. (2018) Verificación de las condiciones psicométricas del Test de Orientación en la Vida (LOT-R) aplicado en población trabajadora Colombiana. Revista Interamericana de Psicología Ocupacional, 35, 58-67. https://doi.org/10.21772/ripo.v35n2a01
González-Quinones, J.C. and Restrepo-Chavarriaga, G. (2010) Prevalencia de felicidad en ciclos vitales y relación con redes de apoyo en población colombiana. Revista de Salud Pública, 12, 228-238.
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0124-00642010000200006
Abbe, A., Tkach, C. and Lyubomirsky, S. (2003) The Art of Living by Dispositionally Happy People. Journal of Happiness Studies, 4, 385-404. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOHS.0000005769.54611.3c
Tkach, C. and Lyubomirsky, S. (2006) How Do People Pursue Happiness? Relating Personality, Happiness-Increasing Strategies, and Well-Being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 7, 183-225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-005-4754-1
Chancellor, J., Layous, K. and Lyubomirsky, S. (2015) Recalling Positive Events at Work Makes Employees Feel Happier, Move More, but Interact Less: A 6-Week Randomized Controlled Intervention at a Japanese Workplace. Journal of Happiness Studies, 16, 871-887. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9538-z
Meyers, M.C. and van Woerkom, M. (2016) Effects of a Strengths Intervention on General and Work-Related Well-Being: The Mediating Role of Positive Affect. Journal of Happiness Studies, 18, 671-689. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9745-x
Salanova, M., Llorens, S., Acosta, H. and Torrente, P. (2013) Positive Interventions in Positive Organizations. Terapia Psicológica, 31, 101-113. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-48082013000100010
Sheldon, K.M. and Lyubomirsky, S. (2006) Achieving Sustainable Gains in Happiness: Change Your Actions, Not Your Circumstances. Journal of Happiness Studies, 7, 55-86. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-005-0868-8
Easterlin, R.A. (2003) Explaining Happiness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100, 11176-11183. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1633144100
Fisher, C.D. (2003) Why Do Lay People Believe that Satisfaction and Performance Are Correlated? Possible Sources of a Commonsense Theory. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24, 753-777. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.219
Jones, M. (2006) Which Is a Better Predictor of Job Performance: Job Satisfaction or Life Satisfaction? Journal of Behavioral & Applied Management, 8, 20-42.
Wright, T.A., Larwood, L. and Denney, P.J. (2002) The Different “Faces” of Happiness—Unhappiness in Organizational Research: Emotional Exhaustion, Positive Affectivity, Negative Affectivity, and Psychological Well-Being as Correlates of Job Performance. Journal of Business and Management, 8, 109-126.
Taris, T.W. and Schreurs, P.J.G. (2009) Well-Being and Organizational Performance: An Organizational-Level Test of the Happy-Productive Worker Hypothesis. Work & Stress, 23, 120-136. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370903072555
Whitman, D.S., Van Rooy, D.L. and Viswesvaran, C. (2010) Satisfaction, Citizenship Behaviors, and Performance in Work Units: A Meta-Analysis of Collective Construct Relations. Personnel Psychology, 63, 41-81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2009.01162.x
Wright, T.A., Cropanzano, R. and Bonett, D.G. (2007) The Moderating Role of Employee Positive Well Being on the Relation between Job Satisfaction and Job Performance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12, 93-104. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.12.2.93
Crow, S.M. and Hartman, S.J. (1995) Can’t Get No Satisfaction. Leadership& Organization Development Journal, 16, 34-38. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437739510089085
Wright, T. and Cropanzano, R. (2000) Psychological Well-Being and Job Satisfaction as Predictors of Job Performance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 84-94. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.5.1.84
Londono Pérez, C., Velasco Salamanca, M., Alejo Castaneda, I., Botero Soto, P. and Joliet Vanegas, I. (2014) What Makes Us Optimistic? Psychosocial Factors as Predictors of Dispositional Optimism in Young People. Terapiapsicológica, 32, 153-164.
Vera-Villarroel, P., Córdova-Rubio, N. and Celis-Atenas, K. (2009) Evaluación del optimismo: un análisis preliminar del Life Orientation Test versión revisada (LOT-R) en población chilena. Universitas Psychologica, 8, 61-67.
Scheier, M.F., Carver, C.S. and Bridges, M.W. (1994) Distinguishing Optimism from Neuroticism (and Trait Anxiety, Self-Mastery, and Self-Esteem): A Reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1063-1078. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1063
Sanín-Posada, A. and Salanova, M. (2015) Análisis Psicométrico del Authentic Happiness Inventory (AHI) en población trabajadora Colombiana. Revista Interamericana de Psicologia Ocupacional, 34, 75-83. https://doi.org/10.21772/ripo.v34n2a01
Piqueras, J.A., Kuhne, W., Vera-Villarroel, P., van Straten, A. and Cuijpers, P. (2011) Happiness and Health Behaviours in Chilean College Students: A Cross-Sectional Survey. BMC Public Health, 11, 443. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-443
Sanín-Posada, A. (2007) Estudio de diferencias en apoyo del jefe e imagen gerencial asociadas al género, nivel educativo y nivel jerárquico. Revista Interamericana de Psicología Ocupacional, 26, 38-62. http://www.redalyc.org/resumen.oa?id=219022147006
Vera-Villarroel, P., Piqueras, J.A., Kuhne, W., Cuijpers, P. and van Straten, A. (2014) Differences between Men and Women in Self-Reported Body Mass Index and Its Relation to Drug Use. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 9, 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/1747-597X-9-1
Anderson, L., Van Dam, F. and Born, K. (2006) A Construct-Driven Investigation of Gender Differences in a Leadership-Role Assessment Center. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 555-566. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.3.555
Bratberg, E., Dahl, S. and Risa, A.E. (2002) The Double Burden: Do Combinations of Career and Family Obligations Increase Sickness Absence among Women? European Sociological Review, 18, 233-249. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/18.2.233
Pavot, W. and Diener, E. (1993) Review of the Satisfaction with Life Scale. Psychological Assessment, 5, 164-172. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.5.2.164
Toro, F. (2010) Validación psicométrica de un conjunto de instrumentos que evalúan efectos individuales de diversos factores psicosociales. Revista Interamericana de Psicología Ocupacional, 29, 193-225.
Vera-Villarroel, P., Pávez, P. and Silva, J. (2012) El rol predisponente del optimismo: Hacia un modelo etiológico del bienestar. Terapia psicológica, 30, 77-84. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-48082012000200008
Peterson, C., Park, N. and Seligman, M.E.P. (2005) Orientations to Happiness and Life Satisfaction: The Full Life versus the Empty Life. Journal of Happiness Studies, 6, 25-41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-004-1278-z
Chang, E.C., Maydeu-Olivares, A. and D’Zurilla, T.J. (1997) Optimism and Pessimism as Partially Independent Constructs: Relationship to Positive and Negative Affectivity and Psychological Well-Being. Personality and Individual Differences, 23, 433-440. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(97)80009-8
Herzberg, P.Y., Glaesmer, H. and Hoyer, J. (2006) Separating Optimism and Pessimism: A Robust Psychometric Analysis of the Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R). Psychological Assessment, 18, 433-438. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.18.4.433
Marshall, G.N., Wortman, C.B., Kusulas, J.W., Hervig, L.K. and Vickers, R.R. (1992) Distinguishing Optimism from Pessimism: Relations to Fundamental Dimensions of Mood and Personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 1067-1074. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.62.6.1067
Sonnentag, S. (2003) Recovery, Work Engagement, and Proactive Behavior: A New Look at the Interface between Nonwork and Work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 518. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.3.518
Dean, K. (1992) Double Burdens of Work: The Female Work and Health Paradox. Health Promotion International, 7, 17-25. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/7.1.17
Vaananen, A., Kevin, M.V., Ala-Mursula, L., Pentti, J., Kivimaki, M. and Vahtera, J. (2005) The Double Burden of and Negative Spillover between Paid and Domestic Work: Associations with Health among Men and Women. Women & Health, 40, 1-18.
https://doi.org/10.1300/J013v40n03_01
Batson, C. and Powell, A. (2003) Altruism and Prosocial Behavior. In: Millon, T. and Lerner, M., Eds., Handbook of psychology Volumen 5 Personality and Social Psychology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471264385.wei0519
Ekman, P., Davidson, R.J. and Friesen, W.V. (1990) The Duchenne Smile: Emotional Expression and Brain Physiology: II. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 342. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.2.342
Posada, J.A.S. and Soria, M.S. (2014) Satisfacción laboral: el camino entre el crecimiento psicológico y el desempeno laboral en empresas colombianas industriales y de servicios. Universitas Psychologica, 13, 2-22.
http://www.redalyc.org/resumen.oa?id=64730432009
Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Bennett, E. and Furnham, A. (2007) The Happy Personality: Mediational Role of Trait Emotional Intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 1633-1639. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.10.029
Otake, K., Shimai, S., Tanaka-Matsumi, J., Otsui, K. and Fredrickson, B. (2006) Happy People Become Happier through Kindness: A Counting Kindnesses Intervention. Journal of Happiness Studies, 7, 361-375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-005-3650-z
Buchanan, K.E. and Bardi, A. (2010) Acts of Kindness and Acts of Novelty Affect Life Satisfaction. The Journal of Social Psychology, 150, 235-237. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224540903365554
Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K.M. and Schkade, D. (2005) Pursuing Happiness: The Architecture of Sustainable Change. Review of General Psychology, 9, 111-131. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.111
Norrish, J.M. and Vella-Brodrick, D.A. (2008) Is the Study of Happiness a Worthy Scientific Pursuit? Social Indicators Research, 87, 393-407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-007-9147-x