China is widely recognized as a significant scientific partner for Western universities. Given that many Western universities are now operating in the Chinese context, this study investigates the everyday conversations in which international partnerships are collaboratively developed and implemented. In particular, it draws attention to the interpretations of the meanings attached to silence in these conversations, and how these can have unintended consequences for how these joint partnerships are accomplished. The findings come from an ethnographic case study that investigated collaboration within the context of setting up a Sino-Dutch research centre between the Delft University of Technology (TU Delft) and South China University of Technology (SCUT) as experienced by Dutch researchers in their interaction with their Chinese partners. The findings reveal that the Dutch researchers attached meaning to what was not said by the Chinese, interpreting it as lack of communication, resulting in judgements, uncontested trusts, and distancing that negatively influenced the achievement of common goals. Finally, the relevance of the findings is discussed for those managing communication in international academic partnerships.
References
[1]
Aarts, N., van Lieshout, M., & van Woerkum, C. (2011). Competing Claims in Public Place: The Construction of Frames in Different Relational Contexts. In W. A. Donohue, R. G. Rogan, & S. Kaufmann (Eds.), Framing Matters: Perspectives on Negotiation Research and Practice in Communication (pp. 234-252). New York, NY: Peter Lang.
[2]
Ai, J. (2006). Guanxi Networks in China: Its Importance and Future Trends. China and World Economy, 14, 105-118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-124X.2006.00034.x
[3]
Aslani, S., Ramirez-Marin, J., Semnani-Azad, Z., Brett, J. M., & Tinsley, C. H. (2013). Dignity, Face, and Honor Cultures: Implications for Negotiation and Conflict. In M. Olekalns, & W. Adair (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Negotiation (pp. 249-282). Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.
[4]
Basso, K. H. (1970). To Give up on Words: Silence in Western Apache Culture. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 26, 213-230. https://doi.org/10.1086/soutjanth.26.3.3629378
[5]
Bennett, J. M. (1993). Toward Ethnorelativism: A Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity. In R. M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the Intercultural Experience (pp. 21-71). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
[6]
Bound, K., Saunders, T., Wilsdon, J., & Adams, J. (2013). China’s Absorptive State: Research, Innovation and the Prospects for China-UK Collaboration. Project Report, London: Nesta.
[7]
Bruijn, J. A., Adriaans, P. W., Hooymans, C. M., Klasen, E. C., & Morley, P. (2012). China’s Extended Hand. How Chinese and Dutch Knowledge Can Strengthen Each Other. Dutch Advisory Council for Science and Technology Policy (AWT). http://www.awti.nl/upload/documents/publicaties/engels/a78uk.pdf
[8]
Bruneau, T. J., & Ishii, S. (1988). Communicative Silences: East and West. World Communication, 17, 1-33.
[9]
Chua, R. Y. J. (2012). Building Effective Business Relationships in China. MIT Sloan Management Review, 53, 27-33.
[10]
Clarke, A. E. (2005). Situational Analysis: Grounded Theory after the Postmodern Turn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412985833
[11]
Cummings, J. N., & Kiesler, S. (2005). Collaborative Research across Disciplinary and Organizational Boundaries. Social Studies of Science, 35, 703-722. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306312705055535
[12]
Emerson, R., Fretz, R., & Shaw, L. (1995). Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226206851.001.0001
[13]
Ennew, C. T., & Fujia, Y. (2009). Foreign Universities in China: A Case Study. European Journal of Education, 44, 21-36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-3435.2008.01368.x
[14]
Fazackerley, A., & Worthington, P. (2007). British Universities in China: The Reality beyond the Rhetoric. An Agora Discussion Paper, London: The Forum for Culture and Education.
[15]
Ford, J. D. (1999). Organizational Change as Shifting Conversations. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 12, 480-500. https://doi.org/10.1108/09534819910300855
[16]
Fujio, M. (2004). Silence during Intercultural Communication: A Case Study. Corporate Communications, 9, 331-338. https://doi.org/10.1108/13563280410564066
[17]
Hall, E. T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York, NY: Anchor Books.
[18]
Herbig, P., & Martin, D. (1998). Negotiating with Chinese: A Cultural Perspective. Cross Cultural Management, 5, 42-56. https://doi.org/10.1108/13527609810796826
[19]
Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. London: McGraw-Hill.
[20]
Hwang, A., Ang, S., & Francesco, A. M. (2002). The Silent Chinese: The influence of Face and Kiasuism on Student Feedback-Seeking Behaviours. Journal of Management Education, 26, 70-98. https://doi.org/10.1177/105256290202600106
[21]
Jaworski, A. (1989). Formulaic Silence. Glossologia, 8, 169-176.
[22]
Jaworski, A. (1993). The Power of Silence: Social and Pragmatic Perspectives. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
[23]
Jaworski, A. (2005). Introduction: Silence in Institutional and Intercultural Contexts. Multilingua—Journal of Cross-Cultural and Interlanguage Communication, 24, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1515/mult.24.1-2.1
[24]
Jenkins, S. (2000). Cultural and Linguistic Miscues: A Case Study of International Teaching Assistant and Academic Faculty Miscommunication. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 24, 477-501. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(00)00011-0
[25]
Klotzbücher, S. (2014). Western-Chinese Academic Collaboration in the Social Sciences. Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 43, 7-12.
[26]
Krieger, S. (2001). A Time to Keep Silent and a Time to Speak: The Functions of Silence in the Lawyering Process. Oregon Law Review, 80, 199-266.
[27]
Lebra, T. S. (1987). The Cultural Significance of Silence in Japanese Communication. Multilingua, 6, 343-357. https://doi.org/10.1515/mult.1987.6.4.343
[28]
Lemak, A. (2012). Silence, Intercultural Conversation, and Miscommunication. Unpublished Thesis, Toronto: University of Toronto.
[29]
Li-Hua, R. (2007). Knowledge Transfer in International Educational Collaboration Programme: The China Perspective. Journal of Technology Management in China, 2, 84-97. https://doi.org/10.1108/17468770710723640
[30]
Luo, Y. (1997). Guanxi: Principles, Philosophies, and Implications. Human Systems Management, 16, 43-51.
[31]
Moore, F. (2011). Holistic Ethnography: Studying the Impact of Multiple National Identities on Post-Acquisition Organizations. Journal of International Business Studies, 42, 654-671. https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2011.11
[32]
Morrison, E. W., & Milliken, F. J. (2000). Organizational Silence: A Barrier to Change and Development in a Pluralistic World. Academy of Management Review, 25, 706-725.
[33]
Nakane, I. (2007). Silence in Intercultural Communication: Perceptions and Performance. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.166
[34]
Panteli, N., & Fineman, S. (2005). The Sound of Silence: The Case of Virtual Team Organising. Behaviour and Information Technology, 24, 347-352. https://doi.org/10.1080/01449290512331335618
[35]
Poland, B., & Pederson, A. (2006). Reading between the Lines: Interpreting Silences in Qualitative Research. Qualitative Inquiry, 4, 293-321. https://doi.org/10.1177/107780049800400209
[36]
Resnik, D., & Zeng, W. (2011). Research Integrity in China: Problems and Prospects. Developing World Bioethics, 10, 164-171.
[37]
Scollon, R., & Wong-Scollon, S. (1990). Athabaskan-English Interethnic Communication. In D. Carbaugh (Ed.), Cultural Communication and Intercultural Contact (pp. 259-286). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
[38]
Sifianou, M. (1997). Silence and Politeness. In A. Jaworski (Ed.), Silence: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (pp. 63-84). New York, NY: Mouton de Gruyter.
[39]
Spencer-Oatey, H., & Xing, J. (2005). Silence in an Intercultural Business Meeting: Multiple Perspectives and Interpretations. Multilingua, 24, 55-74. https://doi.org/10.1515/mult.24.1-2.55
[40]
Tannen, D. (1984). Silence: Anything But. In D. Tannen, & M. Saville-Troike (Eds.), Perspectives on Silence (pp. 93-111). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
[41]
Traweek, S. (1992). Beamtimes and Lifetimes: The World of High Energy Physicists. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
[42]
Verouden, N. W., van der Sanden, M. C. A., & Aarts, N. (2016). Silence in Interdisciplinary Research Collaboration. Science as Culture, 25, 264-288. https://doi.org/10.1080/09505431.2016.1141191
[43]
Wieland, M. (1991). Turn-Taking Structure as a Source of Misunderstanding in French-American Cross Cultural Conversation. Pragmatics and Language Learning, 2, 101-118.
[44]
Yum, J. O. (1988). The Impact of Confucianism on Interpersonal Relationships and Communication Patterns in East Asia. Communication Monographs, 55, 374-388. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637758809376178
[45]
Zhu, Y., McKenna., B., & Sun, Z. (2007). Negotiating with Chinese: Success of Initial Meetings Is the Key. Cross Cultural Management, 14, 354-364. https://doi.org/10.1108/13527600710830368
